Alcohol-related crime refers to criminal activities that involve alcohol use as well as violations of regulations covering the sale or use of alcohol; in other words, activities violating the alcohol laws.^[1][2] Underage drinking and drunk driving are the most prevalent alcohol‐specific offenses in the United States^[1] and a major problem in many, if not most, countries worldwide.^[3][4][5] Similarly, arrests for alcohol-related crimes constitute a high proportion of all arrests made by police in the U.S. and elsewhere.^[6]

Crime perpetrators are much more likely to be intoxicated than crime victims. Alcohol availability and consumption rates and alcohol rates are positively associated with nuisance, loitering, panhandling, and disorderly conduct in open spaces; domestic violence; as well as violent crimes, though specifics differ between particular countries and cultures.^[1] Research found that factors that increase the likelihood of alcohol‐related violence include difficult temperament, hyperactivity, hostile beliefs, history of family violence, poor school performance, delinquent peers, criminogenic beliefs about alcohol's effects, impulsivity, and antisocial personality disorder.^[1]

In the early 2000s, the monetary cost of alcohol-related crime in the United States alone has been estimated at over $205 billion, twice the economic cost of all other drug-related crimes.^[7] In a similar period in the United Kingdom, the cost of crime and its antisocial effects was estimated at £7.3 billion.^[8] Another estimate for the UK for yearly cost of alcohol-related crime suggested double that estimate, at between £8 and 13 billion.^[9] Risky patterns of drinking are particularly problematic in and around Russia, Mexico and some parts of Africa.^[10]

The relation between alcohol and violence is not yet fully understood, as its impact on different individual varies. While alcohol use correlates positively with crimes and violence, there is no simple, causal and direct relationship. Studies and theories of alcohol abuse suggest, among others, that use of alcohol likely reduces the offender's perception and awareness of consequences of their actions.^{[11][1][6][12]} The World Health Organization has noted that out of social problems created by the harmful use of alcohol, "crime and violence related to alcohol consumption" are likely the most significant issue.^[10]

Types

Some crimes are uniquely tied to alcohol, such as public intoxication or underage drinking, while others are simply more likely to occur together with alcohol consumption.

Currency

Alcohol has been used as a currency for transactional sex in South Africa, and Uganda.^[13][14][15]

Public-order crimes

Public-order crimes caused by drinking include drunk driving, domestic violence, and alcohol-related sexual assaults.

Domestic violence and child abuse

Domestic violence typically co‐occurs with alcohol abuse. Alcohol use has been reported as a factor by two-thirds of domestic abuse victims. Moderate drinkers are more frequently engaged in intimate violence than are light drinkers and abstainers, however generally it is heavy and/or binge drinkers who are involved in the most chronic and serious forms of aggression. The odds, frequency, and severity of physical attacks are all positively correlated with alcohol use. In turn, violence decreases after behavioral marital alcoholism treatment. Studies also suggest there may be links between alcohol abuse and child abuse.^[1]

Driving under the influence

Driving under the influence (DUI) or driving while intoxicated (DWI), is the crime of driving a motor vehicle while impaired by alcohol or other drugs including those prescribed by physicians.^[17]

With alcohol consumption, a drunk driver's level of intoxication is typically determined by a measurement of blood alcohol content or BAC; but this can also be expressed as a breath test measurement, often referred to as a BrAC. A BAC or BrAC measurement in excess of the specific threshold level, such as 0.08%, defines the criminal offense with no need to prove impairment.^[18] In some jurisdictions, there is an aggravated category of the offense at a higher BAC level, such as 0.12%, 0.15% or 0.25%. In many jurisdictions, police officers can conduct field tests of suspects to look for signs of intoxication.

Negligence

Negligence in alcohol consumption can have a ripple effect on environmentally responsible behavior. For example, improper disposal of alcohol bottles is a common problem. Many are not recycled or left behind in public spaces. Discarded alcoholic beverage containers, especially broken glass shards that are difficult to remove, does not only create an eyesore but may also cause flat tires for cyclists, injure wildlife or kids. Also, people under the influence may forget to extinguish outdoor fireplaces, which may create a fire hazard since unchecked fires can escalate into wildfires.

Alcohol consumption can contribute to nighttime noise pollution, especially through loud music played by intoxicated individuals. This disrupts sleep and relaxation for nearby residents, impacting health and productivity. Municipal noise ordinances often establish quiet hours and penalties for violations.

Public drunkenness

Public drunkenness or intoxication is a common problem in many jurisdictions. The offenders are often lower class individuals and this crime has a very high recidivism rate, with numerous instances of repeated instances of the arrest, jail, release without treatment cycle. The high number of arrests for public drunkenness often reflects rearrests of the same offenders.^[6]

Robbery and violent crimes

Robbery and violent crimes often involve alcohol use, and there is a positive correlation between such crimes and alcohol use.^[1] 15% of robberies, 63% of intimate partner violence incidents, 37% of sexual assaults, 45–46% of physical assaults and 40–45% of homicides in the United States involved use of alcohol.^[19][7] A 1983 study for the United States found that 54% of violent crime perpetrators, arrested in that country, had been consuming alcohol before their offenses.^[6] In the United Kingdom, in 2015/2016, 39% of those involved in violent crimes were under alcohol influence.^[20] International studies are similar, with an estimate that 63% of violent crimes worldwide involves the use of alcohol.^[7]

Sexual assaults

Rape is any sexual activity that occurs without the freely given consent of one of the parties involved. This includes alcohol-facilitated sexual assault which is considered rape in most if not all jurisdictions,^[21] or non-consensual condom removal which is criminalized in some countries (see the map below).

A 2008 study found that rapists typically consumed relatively high amounts of alcohol and infrequently used condoms during assaults, which was linked to a significant increase in STI transmission.^[22] This also increase the risk of pregnancy from rape for female victims. Some people turn to drugs or alcohol to cope with emotional trauma after a rape; use of these during pregnancy can harm the fetus.^[23]

Alcohol-facilitated sexual assault

One of the most common date rape drugs is alcohol,^[25][26][11] administered either surreptitiously^[27] or consumed voluntarily,^[25] rendering the victim unable to make informed decisions or give consent. The perpetrator then facilitates sexual assault or rape, a crime known as alcohol- or drug-facilitated sexual assault (DFSA).^[28][21][29] However, sex with an unconscious victim is considered rape in most if not all jurisdictions, and some assailants have committed "rapes of convenience" whereby they have assaulted a victim after he or she had become unconscious from drinking too much.^[30] The risk of individuals either experiencing or perpetrating sexual violence and risky sexual behavior increases with alcohol abuse,^[31] and by the consumption of caffeinated alcoholic drinks.^[32][33]

Non-consensual condom removal

Non-consensual condom removal, or "stealthing",^[34] is the practice of a person removing a condom during sexual intercourse without consent, when their sex partner has only consented to condom-protected sex.^[35][36] Purposefully damaging a condom before or during intercourse may also be referred to as stealthing,^[37] regardless of who damaged the condom.

Consuming alcohol can be risky in sexual situations. It can impair judgment and make it difficult for both people to give or receive informed sexual consent. However, a history of sexual aggression and alcohol intoxication are factors associated with an increased risk of men employing non-consensual condom removal and engaging in sexually aggressive behavior with female partners.^[38][39]

Wartime sexual violence

The use of alcohol is a documented factor in wartime sexual violence.

For example, rape during the liberation of Serbia was committed by Soviet Red Army soldiers against women during their advance to Berlin in late 1944 and early 1945 during World War II. Serbian journalist Vuk Perišić said about the rapes: "The rapes were extremely brutal, under the influence of alcohol and usually by a group of soldiers. The Soviet soldiers did not pay attention to the fact that Serbia was their ally, and there is no doubt that the Soviet high command tacitly approved the rape."^[40]

While there wasn't a codified international law specifically prohibiting rape during World War II, customary international law principles already existed that condemned violence against civilians. These principles formed the basis for the development of more explicit laws after the war,^[41] including the Nuremberg Principles established in 1950.

Street crimes

Research suggests a link between alcohol use and involvement in street crime. Intoxication can impair judgment and lower inhibitions, increasing the likelihood of risky behavior like theft or violence. This can escalate situations and lead to more serious crimes.

Street fighting

Street fighting is usually illegal due to its disruption of public order. Some fights are driven by alcohol. Alcohol itself does not directly lead to violence but it acts as a catalyst, allowing cheers from the crowds or provocation from opponents to ignite the fight between fighters.^[42] Since the consumption of alcohol negatively impacts the brain function, drunk people fail to assess the situation which often results in overreacting and unpredictable fights.^[42]

Vandalism

Alcohol-fueled vandalism is a form of destructive behavior that occurs when individuals under the influence of alcohol damage or destroy property, often public or private, that doesn't belong to them. This vandalism can range from minor acts like spray-painting graffiti or breaking windows to more serious offenses like damaging vehicles or buildings.

Impaired judgment and impulse control are key factors. Alcohol intoxication weakens a person's ability to make sound decisions and control their urges, making them more likely to engage in risky or destructive behavior. Additionally, the disinhibition caused by alcohol can lead to a sense of anonymity or invincibility, further emboldening individuals to commit vandalism. Social settings where heavy alcohol consumption is present, particularly those with large groups, can create a sense of conformity or peer pressure, increasing the likelihood of vandalism.

The consequences of alcohol-fueled vandalism can be significant for both the victims and the perpetrators. Victims may face financial losses to repair or replace damaged property. Beyond the financial impact, vandalism can also create a sense of fear and insecurity within communities. For the perpetrators, vandalism can lead to criminal charges, fines, or even jail time.

Rum-running

Rum-running, the illegal business of smuggling alcoholic beverages where such transportation is forbidden by law.

Straw purchase

Straw purchases of alcohol are illegal in most jurisdictions when a person under the legal drinking age requests that a person above the legal age purchase alcohol for the underage person, and the straw purchaser knows or might reasonably assume based on the circumstances that the person is under the legal age.

In England and Wales, buying alcohol on behalf of a person under 18 is a summary offence under section 149 of the Licensing Act 2003, punishable by an unlimited fine (level 5 on the standard scale). There is an exception for beer, wine or cider served to a 16 or 17-year-old with a meal at a table.^[43]

Manufacturing

Moonshine

Moonshine (bootleg liquor) is illegal to produce in most countries and territories.

Methanol laced alcohol

Outbreaks of methanol poisoning have occurred when methanol is used to adulterate moonshine.^[44] Methanol has a high toxicity in humans. If as little as 10 mL of pure methanol is ingested, for example, it can break down into formic acid, which can cause permanent blindness by destruction of the optic nerve, and 30 mL is potentially fatal,^[45] although the median lethal dose is typically 100 mL (3.4 fl oz) (i.e. 1–2 mL/kg body weight of pure methanol^[46]). Reference dose for methanol is 0.5 mg/kg/day.^[47] Toxic effects take hours to start, and effective antidotes can often prevent permanent damage.^[45] Because of its similarities in both appearance and odor to ethanol (the alcohol in beverages), it is difficult to differentiate between the two.

Prison-related crimes

Pruno

Prison officials take a dim view of alcohol. Brewing any kind of prison hooch is strictly prohibited and comes with stiff penalties, from solitary confinement to extended sentences. It's a crime that disrupts the fragile order within prison walls.

Pruno, also known as prison hooch or prison wine, is a term used in the United States to describe an improvised alcoholic beverage. It is variously made from apples, oranges, fruit cocktail, fruit juices, hard candy, sugar, high fructose syrup, and possibly other ingredients, including crumbled bread.^[48] Bread is incorrectly thought to contain yeast for the pruno to ferment. Pruno originated in US prisons, where it can be produced with the limited selection of equipment and ingredients available to inmates. It can be made using only a plastic bag, hot running water, and a towel or sock to conceal the pulp during fermentation. The end result has been colorfully described as a "bile-flavored wine cooler".^[49] Depending on the time spent fermenting (always balanced against the risk of discovery by officers), the sugar content, and the quality of the ingredients and preparation, pruno's alcohol content by volume can range from as low as 2% (equivalent to a very weak beer) to as high as 14% (equivalent to a strong wine).

Wine fraud

Wine fraud relates to the commercial aspects of wine. The most prevalent type of fraud is one where wines are adulterated, usually with the addition of cheaper products (e.g. juices) and sometimes with harmful chemicals and sweeteners (compensating for color or flavor).

Prevention and enforcement

Criminologist Hung‐En Sung has concluded in 2016 that with regards to reducing drunk driving, law enforcement has not generally proven to be effective. Worldwide, the majority of those driving under the influence do not end up arrested. At least two-thirds of alcohol‐involved fatalities involve repeat drinking drivers. Sung, commenting on measures for controlling drunk driving and alcohol‐related accidents, noted that the ones that have proven effective include "lowering legal blood alcohol concentrations, controlling liquor outlets, nighttime driving curfews for minors, educational treatment programs combined with license suspension for offenders, and court monitoring of high‐risk offenders."^[1] In general, programs aimed at reducing society's consumption of alcohol, including education in schools, are seen as an effective long-term solution. Strategies aiming to reduce alcohol consumption among adult offenders have various estimates of effectiveness.^[8]

Alcohol use is stereotypically associated with crime, and therefore policing alcohol‐related street disorder and enforcing compliance checks of alcohol‐dispensing businesses has proven successful in reducing public perception of and fear of criminal activities.^[1]

Taxes

• Pigovian taxes, which are to pay for the damage to society caused by these goods.
• Sin taxes are used to increase the price in an effort to lower their use, or failing that, to increase and find new sources of revenue.

History

The Gin Craze was a period in the first half of the 18th century when the consumption of gin increased rapidly in Great Britain, especially in London. By 1743, England was drinking 2.2 gallons (10 litres) of gin per person per year. The Sale of Spirits Act 1750 (commonly known as the Gin Act 1751) was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain (24 Geo. 2. c. 40) which was enacted to reduce the consumption of gin and other distilled spirits, a popular pastime^[50] that was regarded as one of the primary causes of crime in London.^[51]

Gilbert Paul Jordan (aka The Boozing Barber) was a Canadian serial killer who is believed to have committed the so-called "alcohol murders" between 1965-c. 2004 in Vancouver, British Columbia.

See also

• Alcohol myopia
• Drug-related crime
• Legal drinking age
• List of countries by alcohol consumption per capita
• Prohibition of alcohol

References