Cabinda (formerly called Portuguese Congo, Kongo: Kabinda) is an exclave and province of Angola, a status that has been disputed by several political organizations in the territory. The capital city is also called Cabinda, known locally as Tchiowa, Tsiowa or Kiowa.[3] The province is divided into four municipalities—Belize, Buco-Zau, Cabinda and Cacongo.
Modern Cabinda is the result of a fusion of three kingdoms: N'Goyo, Loango and Kakongo. It has an area of 7,290 km2 (2,810 sq mi) and a population of 716,076 at the 2014 census; the latest official estimate (as at mid 2019) is 824,143. According to 1988 United States governmentstatistics, the total population of the province was 147,200, with a near even split between rural and urban populations.[4] At one point an estimated one third of Cabindans were refugees living in the Democratic Republic of the Congo;[5] however, after the 2007 peace agreement, refugees started returning to their homes.[6]
In 1885, the Treaty of Simulambuco established Cabinda as a protectorate of the Portuguese Empire, and Cabindan independence movements consider the occupation of the territory by Angola illegal. While the Angolan Civil War largely ended in 2002, an armed struggle persists in the exclave of Cabinda.[9] Some of the factions have proclaimed an independent Republic of Cabinda, with offices in Paris.
History
Portuguese Congo
Portuguese explorers, missionaries, and traders arrived at the mouth of the Congo River in the mid-15th century, making contact with the Manikongo, the powerful King of the Bakongo tribe. The Manikongo controlled much of the region through affiliation with smaller kingdoms, such as the Kingdoms of Ngoyo, Loango, and Kakongo in present-day Cabinda.
Over the years, the Portuguese, Dutch, and English established trading posts, logging camps, and small palm oil processing factories in Cabinda. Trade continued and the European presence grew, resulting in conflicts between the rival colonial powers. Between 1827 and 1830, the Imperial Brazilian Navy maintained a naval base in the western part of Cabinda, making it the only Brazilian colony outside of South America.
Portugal first claimed sovereignty over Cabinda in the February 1885 Treaty of Simulambuco, which gave Cabinda the status of a protectorate of the Portuguese Crown under the request of "the princes and governors of Cabinda". This is often the basis upon which the legal and historical arguments in defense of the self-determination of modern-day Cabinda are constructed. Article 1, for example, states, "the princes and chiefs and their successors declare, voluntarily, their recognition of Portuguese sovereignty, placing under the protectorate of this nation all the territories by them governed" [sic]. Article 2, which is often used in separatist arguments, goes even further: "Portugal is obliged to maintain the integrity of the territories placed under its protection". The Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC-R) argues that the above-mentioned treaty was signed between the emissaries of the Portuguese Crown and the princes and notables of Cabinda, then called Portuguese Congo, giving rise to not one, but three protectorates: Cacongo, Loango, and Ngoio.
Through the Treaty of Simulambuco in 1885 between the kings of Portugal and the princes of Cabinda, a Portuguese protectorate was decreed, reserving rights to the local princes and independent of Angola. Cabinda once had the Congo River as the only natural boundary with Angola, but in 1885, the Berlin Conference extended the territory of the Congo Free State along the Congo River to the river's mouth at the sea.
During this time rubber was harvested and traded in Cabinda. Atrocities such as the cutting of hands were also committed there, although comprehensive reports on these atrocities were more scant and less publicly known compared to the neighbouring Congo Free State.[10][11]
Administrative merger with Angola
By the mid-1920s, the borders of Angola had been finally established in negotiations with the neighboring colonial powers. From there on Angola and Cabinda were treated distinctively under the Portuguese constitution of 1933 until January 15, 1975 under the Alvor Agreement.
The Portuguese constitution of 1933 distinguished between the colony of Angola and the protectorate of Cabinda, but in 1956, the administration of Cabinda was transferred to the governor-general of Angola. The legal distinction of Cabinda's status from that of Angola was also expressed in the Portuguese constitution of 1971.[12] Yet, when Angola was declared an "overseas province" (ProvÃncia Ultramarina) within the empire of Portugal in 1951, Cabinda was treated as an ordinary district of Angola. In 1972, the name of Angola was changed to "State of Angola".
Under Portuguese rule, Cabinda was an important agricultural and forestry center, and in 1967, it discovered huge offshore oil fields. Oil, timber, and cocoa had been its main exports until then. The town of Cabinda, the capital of the territory, was a Portuguese administrative and services center with a port and airfield. The beaches of Cabinda were popular with Portuguese Angolans.
After independence of Angola from Portugal
A 1974 military coup in Lisbon abolished the authoritarian regime established by António de Oliveira Salazar that had prevailed in Portugal for decades. The new government decided immediately to grant all Portuguese colonies the independence for which nationalist guerilla movements had been striving. In Angola, the decolonization process took the form of a violent conflict between the different guerilla movements and their allies. In 1975, the Treaty of Alvor between Portugal and National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA), People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) and National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) reconfirmed Cabinda's status as part of Angola. The treaty was rejected by the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda and other local political organizations which advocated for separate independence. Since then, Cabinda has been, on the one hand, a normal Angolan province, but on the other hand, there has been persistent political protest against this status; the "Kabinda Free State" says the exclave was a Portuguese protectorate until Angola invaded in 1974.[13] They also say they control 85% of Kabinda territory and invite proposals for joint ventures.[13] A number of guerrilla actions have also occurred in Cabinda.[14]
The arguments for self-determination are based on Cabindans' cultural and ethnic background. Prior to the Treaty of Simulambuco, three kingdoms existed in what is now referred to as Cabinda: Cacongo, Ngoyo, and Loango. The Cabindans belong to the Bakongo ethnic group whose language is Kikongo. The Bakongo also comprise the majority of the population in UÃge and Zaire provinces of Angola. However, despite this shared ancestry, the Cabindans developed a very different culture and distinct variants of the Kikongo language.
In marked contrast with the FNLA, the FLEC’s efforts to mobilize international support for its government in exile met with little success. In fact, the majority of Organization of African Unity (OAU) members, concerned that this could encourage separatism elsewhere on the continent[citation needed], committed to the sanctity of state borders and firmly rejected recognition of the FLEC’s government in exile.[citation needed]
In January 1975, Angola’s MPLA, FNLA and UNITA liberation movements signed the Alvor Agreement with Portugal, to establish the modalities of the transition to independence. FLEC was not invited.[citation needed]
On 1 August 1975, at an OAU summit in Kampala which was discussing Angola in the midst of its turbulent decolonization process, Ranque Franque proclaimed the independence of the "Republic of Cabinda", [citation needed]. Zairian President Mobutu Sese Seko called for a referendum on the future of Cabinda.
For much of the 1970s and 1980s, FLEC operated a low intensityguerrilla war, attacking Angolan government troops and economic targets, or creating havoc by kidnapping foreign employees working in the province’s oil and construction businesses.
The National Union for the Liberation of Cabinda (Portuguese: União Nacional de Libertação de Cabinda; UNLC), a militant separatist group, emerged in the 1990s under the leadership of Lumingu Luis Gimby.[15]
Although the Angolan government says FLEC is no longer operative, this is disputed by the Republic of Cabinda and its Premier, Joel Batila.[citation needed]
In July 2006, after ceasefire negotiations in the Republic of Congo, António Bento Bembe - as a president of Cabindan Forum for Dialogue and Peace, and vice-president and executive secretary of FLEC - announced that the Cabindan separatist forces were ready to declare a ceasefire. Bembe is the leader of the "Cabindan Forum for Dialogue", an organization which represents most Cabindan groups[citation needed]. The peace was recognized by the United States, France, Portugal, Russia, Gabon, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Japan, South Korea, the European Union and the African Union.
"We're going to sign a cease-fire with the Angolans who in return have accepted the principle of granting special status to Cabinda", he announced, implying that while his group is resigned to be a part of Angola, they have gotten a promise of some form of autonomy.[17]
From Paris, FLEC-FAC contended Bembe has no authority or mandate to negotiate with the Angolans, and that the only acceptable solution is total independence.[18]
On 8 January 2010, the bus carrying the Togo national football team traveling through Cabinda en route to the 2010 Africa Cup of Nations tournament was attacked by gunmen, even though it had an escort of Angolan forces. The ensuing gunfight resulted in the deaths of the assistant coach, team spokesman and bus driver, and caused injuries to several others as well.
An offshoot of the FLEC claimed responsibility. Rodrigues Mingas, secretary general of the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda-Military Position (Flec-PM), said his fighters had meant to attack security guards as the convoy passed through Cabinda. "This attack was not aimed at the Togolese players but at the Angolan forces at the head of the convoy", Mingas told France 24 television. "So it was pure chance that the gunfire hit the players. We don't have anything to do with the Togolese and we present our condolences to the African families and the Togo government. We are fighting for the total liberation of Cabinda."[19]
Consisting largely of tropical forest, Cabinda produces hardwoods, coffee, cocoa, crude rubber, and palm oil. The product for which it is best known, however, is its oil. Conservative estimates say that Cabinda accounts for close to 60% of Angola’s oil production, estimated at approximately 900,000 barrels per day (140,000 m3/d), and it is estimated that oil exports from the province are worth the equivalent of US$100,000 per annum for every Cabindan.[20] Yet Cabinda remains one of the poorest provinces in Angola. An agreement in 1996 between the national and provincial governments stipulated that 10% of Cabinda’s taxes on oil revenues would be given back to the province, but Cabindans often feel that these revenues do not benefit the population as a whole, largely because of corruption. The private sector, particularly the oil industry, has both affected and been affected by the secessionist conflict. During the early days of Cabinda's struggle, the oil companies were perceived as sympathetic to, if not supportive of, Cabinda’s self-determination cause. The strategy used by the separatists to gain international attention, was most evident in 1999 and 2000. During 1999, FLEC-R kidnapped four foreign workers (two Portuguese and two French citizens), but released them after several months, having failed to attract the attention of the international community. FLEC-FAC also increased its activities during 2000 with the more widely publicized kidnapping of three Portuguese workers employed by a construction company, while FLEC-R kidnapped another five Portuguese civilians. These hostages were not freed until June 2001, following diplomatic intervention by the governments of Gabon and the Republic of the Congo.
Municipalities
The province of Cabinda consists of four municipalities (Portuguese: municÃpios); listed below with their areas (in km2) and populations at the 2014 Census and according to the latest official estimates:[21]
Two giant oil fields, the Malonga North and Malonga West were discovered in 1967 and 1970, respectively, both pre-salt or pre-Aptian producers.[22]: 198–199
Located in water depths of 50 to 75 m, oil was discovered in Barremian deposits in 1971, then the Cenomanian section in 1979.
Four offshore oil fields, the Wamba, Takula, Numbi and Vuko, are located in the greater Takula area, producing from the Upper Cretaceous, Cenomanian Vermelha sandstone deposited in the coastal environment.[22]: 197
Cretaceous and Paleocene vertebrates, including fossil turtles as Cabindachelys[23] have been collected from Lândana.
^Collelo, Thomas (editor) (1989) A Country Study: Angola Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., Appendix A, Table 2, Cabinda, Archived 2 March 1999
^ abDale, C.T., Lopes, J.R., and Abilio, S., 1992, Takula Oil Field and the Greater Takula Area, Cabinda, Angola, In Giant Oil and Gas Fields of the Decade, 1978–1988, AAPG Memoir 54, Halbouty, M.T., editor, Tulsa: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, ISBN0891813330
^Myers, T. S., Polcyn M. J., Mateus O., Vineyard D. P., Gonçalves A. O., & Jacobs L. L. (2017). A new durophagous stem cheloniid turtle from the lower Paleocene of Cabinda, Angola. Papers in Palaeontology. 2017, 1-16
1 1975 is the year of East Timor's Declaration of Independence and subsequent invasion by Indonesia. In 2002, East Timor's independence was fully recognized.
Halaman ini berisi artikel tentang mobil sport yang dibuat oleh McLaren Automotive. Untuk nama seorang pembalap, lihat Ayrton Senna. Untuk untuk kegunaan lain, lihat Senna (disambiguasi). McLaren SennaMobil McLaren SennaInformasiProdusenMcLaren AutomotiveJuga disebutP15 Aina (kode internal)Masa produksi2018–sekarang[1]Model untuk tahun2019–sekarangPerakitanWoking, Surrey, InggrisPerancangRobert Melville[2]Bodi & rangkaKelasMobil hyper (S)Bentuk kerangkaCoup…
Bactrocera correcta Klasifikasi ilmiah Kerajaan: Animalia Filum: Arthropoda Kelas: Insecta Ordo: Diptera Famili: Tephritidae Spesies: Bactrocera correcta Bactrocera correcta adalah spesies lalat yang tergolong famili Tephritidae. Spesies ini juga merupakan bagian dari ordo Diptera, kelas Insecta, filum Arthropoda, dan kingdom Animalia. Kebanyakan anggota spesies ini bertelur dalam jaringan tumbuhan, tempat larva menemukan makanan pertamanya setelah lahir. Lalat dewasa biasanya berumur sangat pen…
This article is about the 2018 science fiction film. For the 1950 German documentary film, see The Titan: Story of Michelangelo. For other uses, see Titan. 2018 filmThe TitanOfficial release posterDirected byLennart RuffScreenplay byMax HurwitzStory byArash AmelProduced by Arash Amel Fred Berger Leon Clarance Brian Kavanaugh-Jones Ben Pugh Starring Sam Worthington Taylor Schilling Tom Wilkinson Agyness Deyn Nathalie Emmanuel Corey Johnson Aleksandar Jovanovic Diego Boneta CinematographyJan-Marce…
Özkan Yıldırım Özkan Yildirim, pemain sepak bola Jerman (2016)Informasi pribadiNama lengkap Özkan YıldırımTanggal lahir 10 April 1993 (umur 30)Tempat lahir Sulingen, JermanTinggi 1,72 m (5 ft 8 in)Posisi bermain GelandangInformasi klubKlub saat ini SV Werder BremenNomor 32Karier junior TuS Sulingen SV Werder BremenKarier senior*Tahun Tim Tampil (Gol)2011– SV Werder Bremen II 1 (0)2012– SV Werder Bremen 0 (0) * Penampilan dan gol di klub senior hanya dihitung dari…
Artikel ini perlu diwikifikasi agar memenuhi standar kualitas Wikipedia. Anda dapat memberikan bantuan berupa penambahan pranala dalam, atau dengan merapikan tata letak dari artikel ini. Untuk keterangan lebih lanjut, klik [tampil] di bagian kanan. Mengganti markah HTML dengan markah wiki bila dimungkinkan. Tambahkan pranala wiki. Bila dirasa perlu, buatlah pautan ke artikel wiki lainnya dengan cara menambahkan [[ dan ]] pada kata yang bersangkutan (lihat WP:LINK untuk keterangan lebih lanjut). …
Ayam Bakar McArabia/KoftaNilai nutrisi per 1 sandwichEnergi5.900 kcal (25.000 kJ)Karbohidrat47.0 gGula4.0 gSerat pangan4.0 g Lemak33.0 gJenuh9.6 gTrans0.2 g Protein26.0 g MineralKuantitas %DV†Kalsium2% 20.0 mgZat besi0% 0 mgSodium57% 860.0 mg Satuan μg = mikrogram • mg = miligram SI = Satuan internasional †Persen DV berdasarkan rekomendasi Amerika Serikat untuk orang dewasa. McArabia adalah roti pita yang tersedia di semua gerai McDonald's di negara-negara Arab dan Pakistan…
The following is a list of Playboy Playmates of 1984, the 30th anniversary year of the publication. Playboy magazine names their Playmate of the Month each month throughout the year. January Main article: Penny Baker Penny BakerPersonal detailsBorn (1965-10-05) October 5, 1965 (age 58)Buffalo, New York[1]Height5 ft 8 in (1.73 m)[1] Penny Baker (born October 5, 1965)[1] is an American model and actress. After being interviewed in Chicago, she was chosen…
Lambang kota Hausen adalah kotamadya di Distrik Miltenberg, Regierungsbezirk Unterfranken, Bayern, Jerman. Secara administratif, kota ini masuk ke dalam Verwaltungsgemeinschaft Kleinwallstadt. Geografi Hausen terletak di Taman Nasional Spessart yang berada di Bayerischer Untermain. Sejarah Desa Oberhausen dan Unterhausen yang berada di Keuskupan Agung Mainz menjadi bagian Kepangeranan Aschaffenburg yang baru dibentuk menurut Reichsdeputationshauptschluss 1803 dan pada tahun 1814 menjadi bagian B…
Artikel ini perlu diwikifikasi agar memenuhi standar kualitas Wikipedia. Anda dapat memberikan bantuan berupa penambahan pranala dalam, atau dengan merapikan tata letak dari artikel ini. Untuk keterangan lebih lanjut, klik [tampil] di bagian kanan. Mengganti markah HTML dengan markah wiki bila dimungkinkan. Tambahkan pranala wiki. Bila dirasa perlu, buatlah pautan ke artikel wiki lainnya dengan cara menambahkan [[ dan ]] pada kata yang bersangkutan (lihat WP:LINK untuk keterangan lebih lanjut). …
JelbukKecamatanNegara IndonesiaProvinsiJawa TimurKabupatenJemberPemerintahan • Camat-Populasi • Total- jiwaKode Kemendagri35.09.25 Kode BPS3509280 Desa/kelurahan- Jelbuk adalah sebuah kecamatan di Kabupaten Jember, Provinsi Jawa Timur, Indonesia. Desa Panduman Sukowiryo Sukojember Sugerkidul Sucopangepok Jelbuk Batas Kecamatan Jelbuk memiliki batas-batas sebagai berikut: Utara Kecamatan Maesan, Kabupaten Bondowoso Timur laut Kecamatan Maesan, Kabupaten Bondowoso Timu…
Ibu Negara Republik Rakyat Demokratik KoreaPetahanaRi Sol-jusejak 15 April 2018KediamanKediaman Ryongsong, Pyongyang, Korea UtaraPejabat perdanaKim Song-aeDibentuk17 Desember 1963 Ibu Negara Republik Rakyat Demokratik Korea, yang lebih dikenal sebagai Ibu Negara Korea Utara, adalah istri dari Pemimpin Tertinggi Korea Utara. Daftar Ibu Negara Republik Rakyat Demokratik Korea Pemimpin TertinggiNo. Potret Ibu Negara Masa jabatan Usia masa jabatan dimulai Pemimpin Tertinggi(Suami, kecuali yang …
Artikel ini sebatang kara, artinya tidak ada artikel lain yang memiliki pranala balik ke halaman ini.Bantulah menambah pranala ke artikel ini dari artikel yang berhubungan atau coba peralatan pencari pranala.Tag ini diberikan pada Oktober 2022. GDP per kapita untuk Empat Macan Asia (Singapura, Hong Kong, Taiwan, dan Korea) antara tahun 1960 dan 2014 Ekonomi macan atau ekonomi harimau (Inggris: tiger economycode: en is deprecated ) adalah ekonomi suatu negara yang mengalami pertumbuhan ekonomi ya…
KelpiLukisan Sang Kelpie karya Thomas Millie Dow (1895)Makhluk supernaturalNamaKelpiKelompokmakhluk mitologisSubkelompokmakhluk air, foklor kunoCiriseperti kuda berkulit mulus, yang dapat berubah wujud menjadi wanita cantikMakhluk serupaEach-uisge, Nyx, GlashtynAsalMitologiMitologi KeltNegaraSkotlandia, IrlandiaHabitatsungai, loch Kelpi adalah kuda air supranatural dalam mitologi Kelt yang diyakini menghuni sungai dan loch di Skotlandia dan Irlandia. Kelpi tampak sebagai kuda yang kuat dan berte…
Pidato Gazimestan disampaikan pada 28 Juni 1989 oleh Slobodan MiloÅ¡ević, yang saat itu menjabat sebagai Presiden Serbia, di monumen Gazimestan di Padang Kosovo. Acara ini adalah inti dari perayaan 600 tahun Pertempuran Kosovo, yang terjadi di tempat tersebut pada tahun 1389. Pidato itu disampaikan di hadapan kerumunan besar, di tengah ketegangan antara etnis Serbia dan Albania di Provinsi Otonom Sosialis Kosovo dan meningkatnya ketegangan politik antara Serbia dan republik-republik konstituen …
Love is a StoryGenre Drama Roman Fantasi Cerita Sukhdev Singh Tisa T. S. Sutradara Karsono Hadi Rajbind Singh Pemeran Amanda Rawles Jerome Kurnia Chicco Kurniawan Rebecca Klopper Alika Jantinia Lagu pembukaLove is a Story oleh Siska SalmanLagu penutupLove is a Story oleh Siska SalmanPenata musikYovial VirgiNegara asalIndonesiaBahasa asliBahasa IndonesiaJmlh. musim1Jmlh. episode8ProduksiProduser eksekutif Bunga Zainal Sutanto Hartanto Hermawan Sutanto Tina Arwin ProduserSukhdev SinghSinemat…
Artikel ini sebatang kara, artinya tidak ada artikel lain yang memiliki pranala balik ke halaman ini.Bantulah menambah pranala ke artikel ini dari artikel yang berhubungan atau coba peralatan pencari pranala.Tag ini diberikan pada Februari 2023. Otroea semiflava Klasifikasi ilmiah Kerajaan: Animalia Filum: Arthropoda Kelas: Insecta Ordo: Coleoptera Famili: Cerambycidae Genus: Otroea Spesies: Otroea semiflava Otroea semiflava adalah spesies kumbang tanduk panjang yang tergolong famili Cerambycida…
Untuk pengertian lain, lihat Rune (disambiguasi). Alfabet RuneJenis aksara Alfabet BahasaRumpun bahasa GermanikPeriodeFuthark Tua hingga abad ke-2 MArah penulisanKiri ke kananAksara terkaitSilsilahAbjad FenisiaItalik KunoAlfabet RuneAksara turunanFuthark Muda, Anglo-Saxon futhorcISO 15924ISO 15924Runr, 211 , RunicPengkodean UnicodeNama UnicodeRunicRentang UnicodeU+16A0–U+16FF Artikel ini mengandung transkripsi fonetik dalam Alfabet Fonetik Internasional (IPA). Untuk …