Chinese units of measurement

Chinese units of measurement
Chinese units of measurement
	A traditional Chinese scale
Chinese	市制
Literal meaning	market system
Hanyu Pinyin
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin	shìzhì
Wade–Giles	shih-chih
Alternative Chinese name
Chinese	市用制
Literal meaning	market-use system
Hanyu Pinyin
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin	shìyòngzhì
Wade–Giles	shih-yung-chih

Chinese units of measurement, known in Chinese as the shìzhì ("market system"), are the traditional units of measurement of the Han Chinese. Although Chinese numerals have been decimal (base-10) since the Shang, several Chinese measures use hexadecimal (base-16).^{[citation needed]} Local applications have varied, but the Chinese dynasties usually proclaimed standard measurements and recorded their predecessor's systems in their histories.

In the present day, the People's Republic of China maintains some customary units based upon the market units but standardized to round values in the metric system, for example the common jin or catty of exactly 500 g. The Chinese name for most metric units is based on that of the closest traditional unit; when confusion might arise, the word "market" (市, shì) is used to specify the traditional unit and "common" or "public" (公, gōng) is used for the metric value. Taiwan, like Korea, saw its traditional units standardized to Japanese values and their conversion to a metric basis, such as the Taiwanese ping of about 3.306 m² based on the square ken. The Hong Kong SAR continues to use its traditional units, now legally defined based on a local equation with metric units. For instance, the Hong Kong catty is precisely 604.78982 g.

Note: The names lí (釐 or 厘) and fēn (分) for small units are the same for length, area, and mass; however, they refer to different kinds of measurements.

History

According to the Liji, the legendary Yellow Emperor created the first measurement units. The Xiao Erya and the Kongzi Jiayu state that length units were derived from the human body. According to the Records of the Grand Historian, these human body units caused inconsistency, and Yu the Great, another legendary figure, unified the length measurements. Rulers with decimal units have been unearthed from Shang dynasty tombs.

In the Zhou dynasty, the king conferred nobles with powers of the state and the measurement units began to be inconsistent from state to state. After the Warring States period, Qin Shi Huang unified China, and later standardized measurement units. In the Han dynasty, these measurements were still being used, and were documented systematically in the Book of Han.

Astronomical instruments show little change of the length of chi in the following centuries, since the calendar needed to be consistent. It was not until the introduction of decimal units in the Ming dynasty that the traditional system was revised.

Republican Era

On 7 January 1915, the Beiyang government promulgated a measurement law to use not only metric system as the standard but also a set of Chinese-style measurement based directly on the Qing dynasty definitions (营造尺库平制).^[1]

On 16 February 1929, the Nationalist government adopted and promulgated The Weights and Measures Act^[2] to adopt the metric system as the official standard and to limit the newer Chinese units of measurement (Chinese: 市用制; pinyin: shìyòngzhì; lit. 'market-use system') to private sales and trade in Article 11, effective on 1 January 1930. These newer "market" units are based on rounded metric numbers.^[3]

People's Republic of China

The Government of the People's Republic of China continued using the market system along with metric system, as decreed by the State Council of the People's Republic of China on 25 June 1959, but 1 catty being 500 grams, would become divided into 10 (new) taels, instead of 16 (old) taels, to be converted from province to province, while exempting Chinese prescription drugs from the conversion to prevent errors.^[4]

On 27 February 1984, the State Council of the People's Republic of China decreed the market system to remain acceptable until the end of 1990 and ordered the transition to the national legal measures by that time, but farmland measures would be exempt from this mandatory metrication until further investigation and study.^[5]

Hong Kong

In 1976 the Hong Kong Metrication Ordinance allowed a gradual replacement of the system in favor of the International System of Units (SI) metric system.^[6] The Weights and Measures Ordinance defines the metric, Imperial, and Chinese units.^[7] As of 2012, all three systems are legal for trade and are in widespread use.

Macau

On 24 August 1992, Macau published Law No. 14/92/M to order that Chinese units of measurement similar to those used in Hong Kong, Imperial units, and United States customary units would be permissible for five years since the effective date of the Law, 1 January 1993, on the condition of indicating the corresponding SI values, then for three more years thereafter, Chinese, Imperial, and US units would be permissible as secondary to the SI.^[8]

Ancient Chinese units

Length

Gilded Bronze Ruler - 1 chi = 231 mm. Western Han (206 BCE–8 CE). Hanzhong City

Traditional units of length include the chi (尺), bu (步), and li (里). The precise length of these units, and the ratios between these units, has varied over time. 1 bu has consisted of either 5 or 6 chi, while 1 li has consisted of 300 or 360 bu.

Length in metres^[9]
dynasty	chi	bu		li
dynasty	chi	= 5 chi	= 6 chi	= 300 bu	= 360 bu
Shang (c. 1600 – c. 1045 BC)	0.1675		1.0050	301.50
Shang (c. 1600 – c. 1045 BC)	0.1690		1.0140	304.20
Western Zhou (c. 1045–771 BC)	0.1990		1.1940	358.20
Eastern Zhou (c. 771–256 BC)	0.2200		1.3200	396.00
	0.2270		1.3620	408.60
	0.2310		1.3860	415.80
Qin (c. 221–206 BC)	0.2260		1.3560	406.80^[10] 415.80^[11]^[12]
Han (c. 202 BC–9 AD; 25–220 AD)	0.2300		1.3800	414.00
Han (c. 202 BC–9 AD; 25–220 AD)	0.2381		1.4286	415.80^[13] 415.80^[11]^[12] 428.58 ^[10]
Wei - Sui (c. 220–266 AD; 581 to 618 AD)	0.2550		1.5300	459.00
Tang (c. 618–690 AD; 705–907 AD)	0.2465	1.2325		369.75	443.70
Tang (c. 618–690 AD; 705–907 AD)	0.2955	1.4775		443.25	531.90
Song (c. 960–1279 AD)	0.2700	1.3500		405.00	486.00
Northern Song (c. 960–1127 AD)	0.3080	1.5400		462.00	554.40
Ming (c. 1368–1644 AD)	0.3008–0.3190	1.5040–1.5950		451.20–478.50	541.44–574.20
Qing (c. 1636–1912 AD)	0.3080–0.3352	1.5400–1.6760		462.00–503.89	554.40–603.46

Modern Chinese units

All "metric values" given in the tables are exact unless otherwise specified by the approximation sign '~'.

Certain units are also listed at List of Chinese classifiers → Measurement units.

Length

Chinese length units promulgated in 1915

Table of Chinese length units promulgated in 1915^[1]
Pinyin	Character	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
háo	毫	1⁄10000	32 μm	0.00126 in
lí	釐 (T) or 厘 (S)	1⁄1000	0.32 mm	0.0126 in
fēn	分	1⁄100	3.2 mm	0.126 in
cùn	寸	1⁄10	32 mm	1.26 in	Chinese inch
chǐ	尺	1	0.32 m	12.6 in	Chinese foot
bù	步	5	1.6 m	5.2 ft	Chinese pace
zhàng	丈	10	3.2 m	3.50 yd	Chinese yard
yǐn	引	100	32 m	35.0 yd
lǐ	里	1800	576 m	630 yd	Chinese mile, this li is not the small li above, which has a different character and tone

Chinese length units effective in 1930

Chinese measurement law in 1929, effective 1 January 1930

Table of Chinese length units effective in 1930^[3]
Pinyin	Character	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
háo	毫	1⁄10 000	33+1⁄3 μm	0.00131 in	Chinese mil
lí	釐 (T) or 厘 (S)	1⁄1000	1⁄3 mm	0.0131 in	Chinese calibre
fēn	市分	1⁄100	3+1⁄3 mm	0.1312 in	Chinese line
cùn	市寸	1⁄10	3+1⁄3 cm	1.312 in	Chinese inch
chǐ	市尺	1	33+1⁄3 cm	13.12 in	Chinese foot
zhàng	市丈	10	3+1⁄3 m	3.645 yd	Chinese yard
yǐn	引	100	33+1⁄3 m	36.45 yd	Chinese chain
lǐ	市里	1500	500 m	546.8 yd	Chinese mile, this li is not the small li above, which has a different character and tone

Metric length units

The Chinese word for metre is 米 mǐ; this can take the Chinese standard SI prefixes (for "kilo-", "centi-", etc.). A kilometre, however, may also be called 公里 gōnglǐ, i.e. a metric lǐ.

In the engineering field, traditional units are rounded up to metric units. For example, the Chinese word 絲 (T) or 丝 (S) sī is used to express 0.01 mm.

Table of Chinese length units in engineering
Pinyin	Character	Relative value	Metric value	Notes
hū	忽	1⁄1000000	1 μm	Authorized name: 微米
sī	絲 (T) or 丝 (S)	1⁄100000	10 μm	Authorized name: 忽米
háo	毫	1⁄10000	100 μm	Authorized name: 絲米 (T) or 丝米 (S)
lí	釐 (T) or 厘 (S)	1⁄1000	1 mm	Authorized name: 毫米
fēn	公分	1⁄100	10 mm	Authorized name: 釐米(T) or 厘米(S)
cùn	公寸	1⁄10	100 mm	Authorized name: 分米
chǐ	公尺	1	1 m	Authorized name: 米
Zhàng	公丈	10	10 m	Authorized name: 十米
yǐn	公引	100	100 m	Authorized name: 百米
lǐ	公里	1000	1000 m	this li is not the small li above, which has a different character and tone

Hong Kong and Macau length units

Table of Chinese length units in Hong Kong^[7] and Macau^[8]
Jyutping	Character	English	Portuguese	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
fan1	分	fan	condorim	1⁄100	3.71475 mm	0.1463 in
cyun3	寸	tsun	ponto	1⁄10	37.1475 mm	1.463 in	Hong Kong and Macau inch
cek3	尺	chek	côvado	1	371.475 mm	1.219 ft	Hong Kong and Macau foot

These correspond to the measures listed simply as "China" in The Measures, Weights, & Moneys of All Nations ^[14]

Area

Chinese area units promulgated in 1915

Table of Chinese area units promulgated in 1915^[1]
Pinyin	Character	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
háo	毫	1⁄1000	0.6144 m²	0.7348 sq yd
lí	釐 (T) or 厘 (S)	1⁄100	6.144 m²	7.348 sq yd
fēn	分	1⁄10	61.44 m²	73.48 sq yd
mǔ	畝 (T) or 亩 (S)	1	614.4 m²	734.82 sq yd	Chinese acre, or 60 square zhang
qǐng	頃 (T) or 顷 (S)	100	6.144 ha	15.18 acre	Chinese hide

Table of Chinese square units effective in 1915^[1]
Pinyin	Character	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
fāng cùn	方寸	1⁄100	10.24 cm²	1.587 sq in	square cun
fāng chǐ	方尺	1	0.1024 m²	1.102 sq ft	square chi
fāng zhàng	方丈	100	10.24 m²	110.2 sq ft	square zhang

Chinese area units effective in 1930

Table of Chinese area units effective in 1930^[3]
Pinyin	Character	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
háo	毫	1⁄1000	2⁄3 m²	7.18 sq ft
lí	釐 (T) or 厘 (S)	1⁄100	6+2⁄3 m²	7.973 sq yd
fēn	市分	1⁄10	66+2⁄3 m²	79.73 sq yd
mǔ	畝 (T) or 亩 (S)	1	666+2⁄3 m²	797.3 sq yd 0.1647 acre	Chinese acre 6000 square chi per Article 5 of the 1930 Law (六千平方尺定為一畝) 60 square zhang 1/15 of a hectare
qǐng	頃 (T) or 顷 (S)	100	6+2⁄3 ha	16.47 acre	Chinese hide

Table of Chinese square units effective in 1930^[3]
Pinyin	Character	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
fāng cùn	方寸	1⁄100	11+1⁄9 cm²	1.722 sq in	square cun
fāng chǐ	方尺	1	1⁄9 m²	172.2 sq in 1.196 sq ft	square chi
fāng zhàng	方丈	100	11+1⁄9 m²	119.6 sq ft 13.29 sq yd	square zhang

Metric and other area units

Metric and other standard length units can be squared by the addition of the prefix 平方 píngfāng. For example, a square kilometre is 平方公里 píngfāng gōnglǐ.

Macau area units

Table of Chinese area units in Macau^[8]
Jyutping	Portuguese	Character	Relative value	Relation to the Traditional Chinese Units (Macau)	Metric value	Imperial value
cek3	côvado	尺	1⁄6000	1⁄25鋪	0.1269 m²	1.366 sq ft
pou3		鋪	1⁄240	1⁄4丈	3.1725 m²	34.15 sq ft 3.794 sq yd
zoeng6	braça	丈	1⁄60	1⁄6分	12.69 m²	136.6 sq ft 15.18 sq yd
fan1	condorim	分	1⁄10	1⁄10畝	76.14 m²	91.06 sq yd
mau5	maz	畝 (T) or 亩 (S)	1	None	761.4 m²	910.6 sq yd

Volume

These units are used to measure cereal grains, among other things. In imperial times, the physical standard for these was the jialiang.

Chinese volume units promulgated in 1915

Table of Chinese volume units effective in 1915^[1]
Pinyin	Character	Relative value	Metric value	US value	Imperial value
sháo	勺	1⁄100	10.354688 mL	0.3501 fl oz	0.3644 fl oz
gě	合	1⁄10	103.54688 mL	3.501 fl oz	3.644 fl oz
shēng	升	1	1.0354688 L	2.188 pt	1.822 pt
dǒu	斗	10	10.354688 L	2.735 gal	2.278 gal
hú	斛	50	51.77344 L	13.68 gal	11.39 gal
dàn	石	100	103.54688 L	27.35 gal	22.78 gal

Chinese volume units effective in 1930

Table of Chinese volume units effective in 1930^[3]
Pinyin	Character	Relative value	Metric value	US value	Imperial value	Notes
cuō	撮	1⁄1000	1 mL	0.0338 fl oz	0.0352 fl oz	millilitre
sháo	勺	1⁄100	10 mL	0.3381 fl oz	0.3520 fl oz	centilitre
gě	合	1⁄10	100 mL	3.381 fl oz	3.520 fl oz	decilitre
shēng	市升	1	1 L	2.113 pt	1.760 pt	litre
dǒu	市斗	10	10 L	21.13 pt 2.64 gal	17.60 pt 2.20 gal	decalitre
dàn	市石	100	100 L	26.41 gal	22.0 gal	hectolitre

Metric volume units

In the case of volume, the market and metric shēng coincide, being equal to one litre as shown in the table. The Chinese standard SI prefixes (for "milli-", "centi-", etc.) may be added to this word shēng.

Units of volume can also be obtained from any standard unit of length using the prefix 立方 lìfāng ("cubic"), as in 立方米 lìfāng mǐ for one cubic metre.

Macau volume units

Table of Chinese volume units in Macau^[8]
Jyutping	Character	Relation to the Traditional Chinese Units (Macau)	Metric value
cyut3	撮	1⁄10甘特	1.031 L
gam1 dak6	甘特	1⁄10石	10.31 L
sek6	石	None	103.1 L

Mass

These units are used to measure the mass of objects. They are also famous for measuring monetary objects such as gold and silver.

Chinese mass units promulgated in 1915

Table of Chinese mass units promulgated in 1915^[1]
Pinyin	Character	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
háo	毫	1⁄10000	3.7301 mg	0.0001316 oz
lí	釐	1⁄1000	37.301 mg	0.001316 oz	cash
fēn	分	1⁄100	373.01 mg	0.01316 oz	candareen
qián	錢	1⁄10	3.7301 g	0.1316 oz	mace or Chinese dram
liǎng	兩	1	37.301 g	1.316 oz	tael or Chinese ounce
jīn	斤	16	596.816 g	1.316 lb	catty or Chinese pound

Mass units in the Republic of China since 1930

Table of mass units in the Republic of China since 1930^[3]
Pinyin	Character	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
sī	絲	1⁄1600000	312.5 μg	0.00001102 oz
háo	毫	1⁄160000	3.125 mg	0.0001102 oz
lí	市釐	1⁄16000	31.25 mg	0.001102 oz	cash
fēn	市分	1⁄1600	312.5 mg	0.01102 oz	candareen
qián	市錢	1⁄160	3.125 g	0.1102 oz	mace or Chinese dram
liǎng	市兩	1⁄16	31.25 g	1.102 oz	tael or Chinese ounce
jīn	市斤	1	500 g	1.102 lb	catty or Chinese pound
dàn	擔	100	50 kg	110.2 lb	picul or Chinese hundredweight

Mass units in the People's Republic of China since 1959

Table of mass units in the People's Republic of China since 1959^[4]
Pinyin	Character^[15]	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
lí	市厘	1⁄10000	50 mg	0.001764 oz	cash
fēn	市分	1⁄1000	500 mg	0.01764 oz	candareen
qián	市錢	1⁄100	5 g	0.1764 oz	mace or Chinese dram
liǎng	市兩	1⁄10	50 g	1.764 oz	tael or Chinese ounce
jīn	市斤	1	500 g	1.102 lb	catty or Chinese pound formerly 16 liang = 1 jin
dàn	市擔	100	50 kg	110.2 lb	picul or Chinese hundredweight

Metric mass units

The Chinese word for gram is 克 kè; this can take the Chinese standard SI prefixes (for "milli-", "deca-", and so on). A kilogram, however, is commonly called 公斤 gōngjīn, i.e. a metric jīn.

Hong Kong and Macau mass units

Table of Chinese mass units in Hong Kong^[7] and Macau^[8]
Jyutping	Character	English	Portuguese	Relative value	Relation to the Traditional Chinese Units (Macau)	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
lei4	厘	li, cash	liz	1⁄16000	1⁄10 condorim	37.79931 mg	0.02133 dr	Not defined in Hong Kong. Macanese definition may not be correct when dividing catty.
fan1	分	fen, fan, candareen	condorim	1⁄1600	1⁄10 maz	377.9936375 mg	0.2133 dr	Macanese definition of 377.9931 mg may not be correct when dividing catty.
cin4	錢	qian, tsin, mace	maz	1⁄160	1⁄10 tael	3.779936375 g	2.1333 dr	Macanese definition of 3.779931 g may not be correct when dividing catty.
loeng2	兩	liang, leung, tael	tael	1⁄16	1⁄16 cate	37.79936375 g	1.3333 oz	Macanese definition of 37.79931 g may not be correct when dividing catty.
gan1	斤	jin, kan, catty	cate	1	1⁄100 pico	604.78982 g	1.3333 lb	Hong Kong and Macau share the definition.
daam3	擔	dan, tam, picul	pico	100	None	60.478982 kg	133.3333 lb	Hong Kong and Macau share the definition.
		Ding				1000 kg

Hong Kong troy units

These are used for trading precious metals such as gold and silver.

Table of mass (Hong Kong troy) units^[7]
English	Character	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value
fen (candareen) troy	金衡分	1⁄100	374.29 mg	0.096 drt
qian (mace) troy	金衡錢	1⁄10	3.7429 g	0.96 drt
liang (tael) troy	金衡兩	1	37.429 g	1.2 ozt

Time

Table of time units
Pinyin	Character	Relative value		Western value		Notes
Pinyin	Character	Traditional value	Modern value	Traditional value	Modern value	Notes
miǎo	秒			144 milliseconds	1 second
fēn	分	100 miǎo	60 miǎo	14.4 seconds	1 minute
kè	刻	1 minor kè = 10 fēn	15 fēn	2 minutes 24 seconds	15 minutes, 1 quarter	kè was defined at 1⁄96, 1⁄108, or 1⁄120 day during the Liang dynasty, and established at 1⁄96 day after the Qing dynasty.
kè	刻	1 major kè = 60 fēn	15 fēn	14 minutes 24 seconds	15 minutes, 1 quarter
diǎn	點 (T) 点 (S)	100 fēn	60 fēn	24 minutes	1 hour
shí^[16]	時 (T) 时 (S)	8+1⁄3 kè	4 kè	2 hours	1 hour	the xiǎoshí(小時, lit. minor shí) is currently a unit used to express "hour" in order to avoid ambiguity
shí^[16]	時 (T) 时 (S)	(pre-Qin) 10 kè	4 kè	2 hours 24 minutes	1 hour
shíchén	時辰 (T) 时辰 (S)	8+1⁄3 kè	-	2 hours	-
shíchén	時辰 (T) 时辰 (S)	(pre-Qin) 10 kè	-	2 hours 24 minutes	-
xiǎoshí	小時 (T) 小时 (S)	-	60 fēn	-	1 hour
rì / tiān	日/天	12 shíchén	24 xiǎoshí	24 hours		1 day

Historiography

As there were hundreds of unofficial measures in use, the bibliography is quite vast. The editions of Wu Chenglou's 1937 History of Chinese Measurement^[17] were the usual standard up to the 1980s or so, but rely mostly on surviving literary accounts. Newer research has put more emphasis on archeological discoveries.^[18] Qiu Guangming & Zhang Yanming's 2005 bilingual Concise History of Ancient Chinese Measures and Weights summarizes these findings.^[19] A relatively recent and comprehensive bibliography, organized by period studied, has been compiled in 2012 by Cao & al.;^[20] for a shorter list, see Wilkinson's year 2000 Chinese History.^[18]

References

Citations

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f "權度法 [Quándù Fǎ]", 政府公報 [Zhèngfǔ Gōngbào, Government Gazette], vol. 957, Beijing: Office of the President, 7 January 1915, pp. 85–94^{[permanent dead link‍]}. (in Chinese)
^ "The Weights and Measures Act: Legislative History". Ministry of Justice (Republic of China).
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f "The Weights and Measures Act (1929)". Legislative Yuan. Archived from the original on 2014-04-25.
^ ^a ^b (in Chinese) 1959 Gazette of the State Council of the People's Republic of China, No. 180, pages 311 to 312
^ Decree of the State Council Concerning the Use of Uniform Legal Measures in the Country Archived 2015-04-09 at the Wayback Machine
^ Yearbook HK. "Yearbook." Metrication. Retrieved on 26 April 2007.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Cap. 68 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES ORDINANCE
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Law No. 14/92/M ((in Chinese) 第14/92/M號法律; (in Portuguese) Lei n.^o 14/92/M)
^ Schinz, 1996
^ ^a ^b Schinz, p. 476.
^ ^a ^b Dubs (1938), pp. 276-280; (1955), p. 160, n. 7.
^ ^a ^b Hulsewé (1961), pp. 206–207.
^ Hill (2015), "About the Measurements", pp. xxiii-xxiv.
^ W. S. B. Woolhouse (1859), The Measures, Weights, & Moneys of All Nations (And an Analysis of the Christian, Hebrew, and Mahometan Calendars), J. Weale
^ (in Chinese) 1959 Gazette of the State Council of the People's Republic of China, No. 180, page 316
^ Nachum Dershowitz, Edward M. Reingold, "Calendrical calculations", page 207
^ 吳承洛 (1937), 《中國度量衡史》 [Zhōngguó Dùliànghéng Shǐ], 2nd ed. in 1957, 3rd ed. in 1993. (in Chinese)
^ ^a ^b Wilkinson, Endymion (2000), Chinese History: A Manual (2nd ed.), Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Center, pp. 244–245, ISBN 978-0-674-00249-4.
^ 丘光明 (2005), 张延明 (ed.), 《中国古代计量史图鉴》 [Zhōngguó Gǔdài Jìliàng Shǐ Tújiàn], Hefei: Hefei University Press, ISBN 7-81093-284-5. (in Chinese) & (in English)
^ Cao Jin; et al. (2012), Chinese, Japanese and Western Research in Chinese Historical Metrology: A Classified Bibliography (1925-2012), Tübingen: Institute for Chinese and Korean Studies at the University of Tübingen.

Sources

Hill, John E. (2015) Through the Jade Gate - China to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. Vol. I. John E. Hill. CreateSpace, Charleston, South Carolina. ISBN 978-1-5006-9670-2.
Homer H. Dubs (1938): The History of the Former Han Dynasty by Pan Ku. Vol. One. Translator and editor: Homer H. Dubs. Baltimore. Waverly Press, Inc.
Homer H. Dubs (1955): The History of the Former Han Dynasty by Pan Ku. Vol. Three. Translator and editor: Homer H. Dubs. Ithaca, New York. Spoken Languages Services, Inc.
Hulsewé, (1961). "Han measures." A. F. P. Hulsewé, T'oung pao Archives, Vol. XLIX, Livre 3, pp. 206–207.
Chinese Measurement Converter - Online Chinese / Metric / Imperial Converter
Chinese/Metric/Imperial Measurement Converter
Schinz, Alfred (1996). The magic square: cities in ancient China. Edition Axel Menges. p. 428. ISBN 3-930698-02-1.

[ROC1915-1] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f "權度法 [Quándù Fǎ]", 政府公報 [Zhèngfǔ Gōngbào, Government Gazette], vol. 957, Beijing: Office of the President, 7 January 1915, pp. 85–94^{[permanent dead link‍]}. (in Chinese)

[2] "The Weights and Measures Act: Legislative History". Ministry of Justice (Republic of China).

[ROC1930-3] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f "The Weights and Measures Act (1929)". Legislative Yuan. Archived from the original on 2014-04-25.

[PRC1959-4] (in Chinese) 1959 Gazette of the State Council of the People's Republic of China, No. 180, pages 311 to 312

[PRC1984-5] Decree of the State Council Concerning the Use of Uniform Legal Measures in the Country Archived 2015-04-09 at the Wayback Machine

[6] Yearbook HK. "Yearbook." Metrication. Retrieved on 26 April 2007.

[HK-7] Cap. 68 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES ORDINANCE

[MO-8] Law No. 14/92/M ((in Chinese) 第14/92/M號法律; (in Portuguese) Lei n.^o 14/92/M)

[9] Schinz, 1996

[Schinz,_p._476-10] Schinz, p. 476.

[Dubs_1938_pp._276-280-11] Dubs (1938), pp. 276-280; (1955), p. 160, n. 7.

[Hulsewé_1961,_pp._206–207-12] Hulsewé (1961), pp. 206–207.

[13] Hill (2015), "About the Measurements", pp. xxiii-xxiv.

[14] W. S. B. Woolhouse (1859), The Measures, Weights, & Moneys of All Nations (And an Analysis of the Christian, Hebrew, and Mahometan Calendars), J. Weale

[15] (in Chinese) 1959 Gazette of the State Council of the People's Republic of China, No. 180, page 316

[16] Nachum Dershowitz, Edward M. Reingold, "Calendrical calculations", page 207

[17] 吳承洛 (1937), 《中國度量衡史》 [Zhōngguó Dùliànghéng Shǐ], 2nd ed. in 1957, 3rd ed. in 1993. (in Chinese)

[Wilkinson2000-18] Wilkinson, Endymion (2000), Chinese History: A Manual (2nd ed.), Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Center, pp. 244–245, ISBN 978-0-674-00249-4.

[19] 丘光明 (2005), 张延明 (ed.), 《中国古代计量史图鉴》 [Zhōngguó Gǔdài Jìliàng Shǐ Tújiàn], Hefei: Hefei University Press, ISBN 7-81093-284-5. (in Chinese) & (in English)

[20] Cao Jin; et al. (2012), Chinese, Japanese and Western Research in Chinese Historical Metrology: A Classified Bibliography (1925-2012), Tübingen: Institute for Chinese and Korean Studies at the University of Tübingen.

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Chinese units of measurement

History

Republican Era

People's Republic of China

Hong Kong

Macau

Ancient Chinese units

Length

Modern Chinese units

Length

Chinese length units promulgated in 1915

Chinese length units effective in 1930

Metric length units

Hong Kong and Macau length units

Area

Chinese area units promulgated in 1915

Chinese area units effective in 1930

Metric and other area units

Macau area units

Volume

Chinese volume units promulgated in 1915

Chinese volume units effective in 1930

Metric volume units

Macau volume units

Mass

Chinese mass units promulgated in 1915

Mass units in the Republic of China since 1930

Mass units in the People's Republic of China since 1959

Metric mass units

Hong Kong and Macau mass units

Hong Kong troy units

Time

Historiography

See also

References

Citations

Sources

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