This article is about ancient and medieval books. For other uses, see Codex (disambiguation).
The codex (pl.: codices/ˈkoʊdɪsiːz/)[1] was the historical ancestor of the modern book. Instead of being composed of sheets of paper, it used sheets of vellum, papyrus, or other materials. The term codex is often used for ancient manuscript books, with handwritten contents.[2] A codex is bound by stacking the pages and securing one set of edges, in a form analogous to modern bookbinding. Modern books are divided into paperback (or softback) and those bound with stiff boards, called hardbacks. Elaborate historical bindings are called treasure bindings.[3][4] At least in the Western world, the main alternative to the paged codex format for a long document was the continuous scroll, which was the dominant form of document in the ancient world. Some codices are continuously folded like a concertina, in particular the Maya codices and Aztec codices, which are actually long sheets of paper or animal skin folded into pages. In Japan, concertina-style codices called orihon developed during the Heian period (794–1185) were made of paper.[5]
The Ancient Romans developed the form from wax tablets. The gradual replacement of the scroll by the codex has been called the most important advance in book making before the invention of the printing press.[6] The codex transformed the shape of the book itself, and offered a form that has lasted ever since.[7] The spread of the codex is often associated with the rise of Christianity, which early on adopted the format for the Bible.[8] First described in the 1st century of the Common Era, when the Roman poet Martial praised its convenient use, the codex achieved numerical parity with the scroll around 300 CE,[9] and had completely replaced it throughout what was by then a Christianized Greco-Roman world by the 6th century.[10]
Etymology and origins
The word codex comes from the Latin word caudex, meaning "trunk of a tree", "block of wood" or "book". The codex began to replace the scroll almost as soon as it was invented, although new finds add three centuries to its history (see below). In Egypt, by the fifth century, the codex outnumbered the scroll by ten to one based on surviving examples. By the sixth century, the scroll had almost vanished as a medium for literature.[11] The change from rolls to codices roughly coincides with the transition from papyrus to parchment as the preferred writing material, but the two developments are unconnected. In fact, any combination of codices and scrolls with papyrus and parchment is technically feasible and common in the historical record.[12]
The codex provided considerable advantages over other book formats, primarily its compactness, sturdiness, economic use of materials by using both sides (recto and verso), and ease of reference (a codex accommodates random access, as opposed to a scroll, which uses sequential access).[14]
Julius Caesar may have been the first Roman to reduce scrolls to bound pages in the form of a note-book, possibly even as a papyrus codex.[17] At the turn of the 1st century AD, a kind of folded parchment notebook called pugillares membranei in Latin became commonly used for writing in the Roman Empire.[18]Theodore Cressy Skeat theorized that this form of notebook was invented in Rome and then spread rapidly to the Near East.[19]
Codices are described in certain works by the Classical Latin poet, Martial. He wrote a series of five couplets meant to accompany gifts of literature that Romans exchanged during the festival of Saturnalia. Three of these books are specifically described by Martial as being in the form of a codex; the poet praises the compendiousness of the form (as opposed to the scroll), as well as the convenience with which such a book can be read on a journey. In another poem by Martial, the poet advertises a new edition of his works, specifically noting that it is produced as a codex, taking less space than a scroll and being more comfortable to hold in one hand. According to Theodore Cressy Skeat, this might be the first recorded known case of an entire edition of a literary work (not just a single copy) being published in codex form, though it was likely an isolated case and was not a common practice until a much later time.[20]
In his discussion of one of the earliest parchment codices to survive from Oxyrhynchus in Egypt, Eric Turner seems to challenge Skeat's notion when stating, "its mere existence is evidence that this book form had a prehistory", and that "early experiments with this book form may well have taken place outside of Egypt."[22] Early codices of parchment or papyrus appear to have been widely used as personal notebooks, for instance in recording copies of letters sent (Cicero Fam. 9.26.1). Early codices were not always cohesive. They often contained multiple languages, various topics and even multiple authors. "Such codices formed libraries in their own right."[23] The parchment notebook pages were "more durable, and could withstand being folded and stitched to other sheets". Parchments whose writing was no longer needed were commonly washed or scraped for re-use, creating a palimpsest; the erased text, which can often be recovered, is older and usually more interesting than the newer text which replaced it. Consequently, writings in a codex were often considered informal and impermanent.[24][4] Parchment (animal skin) was expensive, and therefore it was used primarily by the wealthy and powerful, who were also able to pay for textual design and color. "Official documents and deluxe manuscripts [in the late Middle Ages] were written in gold and silver ink on parchment...dyed or painted with costly purple pigments as an expression of imperial power and wealth."[4]
As early as the early 2nd century, there is evidence that a codex—usually of papyrus—was the preferred format among Christians. In the library of the Villa of the Papyri, Herculaneum (buried in AD 79), all the texts (of Greek literature) are scrolls (see Herculaneum papyri). However, in the Nag Hammadi library, hidden about AD 390, all texts (Gnostic) are codices. Despite this comparison, a fragment of a non-Christian parchment codex of Demosthenes' De Falsa Legatione from Oxyrhynchus in Egypt demonstrates that the surviving evidence is insufficient to conclude whether Christians played a major or central role in the development of early codices—or if they simply adopted the format to distinguish themselves from Jews.[25]
The earliest surviving fragments from codices come from Egypt, and are variously dated (always tentatively) towards the end of the 1st century or in the first half of the 2nd. This group includes the Rylands Library Papyrus P52, containing part of St John's Gospel, and perhaps dating from between 125 and 160.[26]
In Western culture, the codex gradually replaced the scroll. Between the 4th century, when the codex gained wide acceptance, and the Carolingian Renaissance in the 8th century, many works that were not converted from scroll to codex were lost. The codex improved on the scroll in several ways. It could be opened flat at any page for easier reading, pages could be written on both front and back (recto and verso), and the protection of durable covers made it more compact and easier to transport.[27]
The ancients stored codices with spines facing inward, and not always vertically. The spine could be used for the incipit, before the concept of a proper title developed in medieval times. Though most early codices were made of papyrus, papyrus was fragile and supplied from Egypt, the only place where papyrus grew. The more durable parchment and vellum gained favor, despite the cost.[4]
The codices of pre-ColumbianMesoamerica (Mexico and Central America) had a similar appearance when closed to the European codex, but were instead made with long folded strips of either fig bark (amatl) or plant fibers, often with a layer of whitewash applied before writing. New World codices were written as late as the 16th century (see Maya codices and Aztec codices). Those written before the Spanish conquests seem all to have been single long sheets folded concertina-style, sometimes written on both sides of the amatl paper. There are significant codices produced in the colonial era, with pictorial and alphabetic texts in Spanish or an indigenous language such as Nahuatl.[28]
In East Asia, the scroll remained standard for far longer than in the Mediterranean world. There were intermediate stages, such as scrolls folded concertina-style and pasted together at the back and books that were printed only on one side of the paper.[29] This replaced traditional Chinese writing mediums such as bamboo and wooden slips, as well as silk and paper scrolls.[30] The evolution of the codex in China began with folded-leaf pamphlets in the 9th century, during the late Tang dynasty (618–907), improved by the 'butterfly' bindings of the Song dynasty (960–1279), the wrapped back binding of the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), the stitched binding of the Ming (1368–1644) and Qing dynasties (1644–1912), and finally the adoption of Western-style bookbinding in the 20th century.[31][failed verification] The initial phase of this evolution, the accordion-folded palm-leaf-style book, most likely came from India and was introduced to China via Buddhist missionaries and scriptures.[31][failed verification]
Among the experiments of earlier centuries, scrolls were sometimes unrolled horizontally, as a succession of columns. The Dead Sea Scrolls are a famous example of this format, and it is the standard format for Jewish Torah scrolls made to this day for ritual use. This made it possible to fold the scroll as an accordion. The next evolutionary step was to cut the folios and sew and glue them at their centers, making it easier to use the papyrus or vellumrecto-verso as with a modern book.[citation needed]
Traditional bookbinders would call one of these assembled, trimmed and bound folios (that is, the "pages" of the book as a whole, comprising the front matter and contents) a codex in contradistinction to the cover or case, producing the format of book now colloquially known as a hardcover. In the hardcover bookbinding process, the procedure of binding the codex is very different to that of producing and attaching the case.[citation needed]
The first stage in creating a codex is to prepare the animal skin. The skin is washed with water and lime but not together. The skin is soaked in the lime for a couple of days.[33] The hair is removed, and the skin is dried by attaching it to a frame, called a herse.[34]: 11 The parchment maker attaches the skin at points around the circumference. The skin attaches to the herse by cords. To prevent it from being torn, the maker wraps the area of the skin attached to the cord around a pebble called a pippin.[34]: 11 After completing that, the maker uses a crescent shaped knife called a lunarium or lunellum to remove any remaining hairs. Once the skin completely dries, the maker gives it a deep clean and processes it into sheets. The number of sheets from a piece of skin depends on the size of the skin and the final product dimensions. For example, the average calfskin can provide three-and-a-half medium sheets of writing material, which can be doubled when they are folded into two conjoint leaves, also known as a bifolium. Historians have found evidence of manuscripts in which the scribe wrote down the medieval instructions now followed by modern membrane makers.[35] Defects can often be found in the membrane, whether they are from the original animal, human error during the preparation period, or from when the animal was killed. Defects can also appear during the writing process. Unless the manuscript is kept in perfect condition, defects can also appear later in its life.[citation needed]
Preparation of pages for writing
Firstly, the membrane must be prepared. The first step is to set up the quires. The quire is a group of several sheets put together. Raymond Clemens and Timothy Graham point out, in "Introduction to Manuscript Studies", that "the quire was the scribe's basic writing unit throughout the Middle Ages":[34]: 14
Pricking is the process of making holes in a sheet of parchment (or membrane) in preparation of it ruling. The lines were then made by ruling between the prick marks.... The process of entering ruled lines on the page to serve as a guide for entering text. Most manuscripts were ruled with horizontal lines that served as the baselines on which the text was entered and with vertical bounding lines that marked the boundaries of the columns.[34][page needed]
Forming quire
From the Carolingian period to the end of the Middle Ages, different styles of folding the quire came about. For example, in continental Europe throughout the Middle Ages, the quire was put into a system in which each side folded on to the same style.[clarification needed] The hair side met the hair side and the flesh side to the flesh side. This was not the same style used in the British Isles, where the membrane was folded so that it turned out an eight-leaf quire, with single leaves in the third and sixth positions.[34] The next stage was tacking the quire. Tacking is when the scribe would hold together the leaves in quire with thread. Once threaded together, the scribe would then sew a line of parchment up the "spine" of the manuscript to protect the tacking.[citation needed]
Materials
The materials codices are made with are their support, and include papyrus, parchment (sometimes referred to as membrane or vellum), and paper. They are written and drawn on with metals, pigments and ink.[36] The quality, size, and choice of support determine the status of a codex. Papyrus is found only in late antiquity and the early Middle Ages. Codices intended for display were bound with more durable materials than vellum.[37] Parchment varied widely due to animal species and finish, and identification of animals used to make it has only begun to be studied in the 21st century. How manufacturing influenced the final products, technique, and style, is little understood. However, changes in style are underpinned more by variation in technique.[38] Before the 14th and 15th century, paper was expensive, and its use may mark off the deluxe copy.[37]
Structure
The structure of a codex includes its size, format/ordinatio[37](its quires or gatherings),[38] consisting of sheets folded a number of times, often twice- a bifolio[39]), sewing, bookbinding and rebinding. A quire consisted of a number of folded sheets inserting into one another- at least three, but most commonly four bifolia,[36] that is eight sheets and sixteen pages:[38] Latin quaternio or Greek tetradion, which became a synonym for quires.[36] Unless an exemplar (text to be copied) was copied exactly, format differed.[37] In preparation for writing codices, ruling patterns were used that determined the layout of each page. Holes were prickled with a spiked lead wheel and a circle. Ruling was then applied separately on each page or once through the top folio.[40] Ownership markings, decorations and illumination are also a part of it.[41][36] They are specific to the scriptoria, or any production center, and libraries of codices.[36]
Pages
Watermarks may provide, although often approximate, dates for when the copying occurred. The layout– size of the margin and the number of lines– is determined. There may be textual articulations, running heads, openings, chapters and paragraphs. Space was reserved for illustrations and decorated guide letters. The apparatus of books for scholars became more elaborate during the 13th and 14th centuries when chapter, verse, page numbering, marginalia finding guides, indexes, glossaries and tables of contents were developed.[37]
The libraire
By a close examination of the physical attributes of a codex, it is sometimes possible to match up long-separated elements originally from the same book. In 13th-century book publishing, due to secularization, stationers or libraires emerged. They would receive commissions for texts, which they would contract out to scribes, illustrators, and binders, to whom they supplied materials. Due to the systematic format used for assembly by the libraire, the structure can be used to reconstruct the original order of a manuscript. However, complications can arise in the study of a codex. Manuscripts were frequently rebound, and this resulted in a particular codex incorporating works of different dates and origins, thus different internal structures. Additionally, a binder could alter or unify these structures to ensure a better fit for the new binding.[42] Completed quires or books of quires might constitute independent book units- booklets, which could be returned to the stationer, or combined with other texts to make anthologies or miscellanies. Exemplars were sometimes divided into quires for simultaneous copying and loaned out to students for study. To facilitate this, catchwords were used- a word at the end of a page providing the next page's first word.[37][43]
^Michelle P. Brown, Understanding Illuminated Manuscripts, revised: A Guide to Technical Terms, 2018, Getty Publications, ISBN1606065785, 9781606065785 p. 109.
^Carratelli, Giovanni Pugliese (1950). "L'instrvmentvm Scriptorivm Nei Monumenti Pompeiani Ed Ercolanesi." in Pompeiana. Raccolta di studi per il secondo centenario degli di Pompei. pp. 166–78.
^Turner 1977, and Roberts & Skeat 1983. From Robert A Kraft (see link): "A fragment of a Latin parchment codex of an otherwise unknown historical text dating to about AD 100 was also found at Oxyrhynchus (P. Oxy. 30; see Roberts & Skeat 28). Papyrus fragments of a 'Treatise of the Empirical School' dated by its editor to the centuries AD 1–2 is also attested in the Berlin collection (inv. # 9015, Pack\2 # 2355)—Turner, Typology # 389, and Roberts & Skeat 71, call it a 'medical manual'".
^Murray, S. (2009). The library: An illustrated history. New York, NY: Skyhorse Publishing, Inc. Chicago: ALA Editions 2009. (p. 27).
^ abcdeClemens, Raymond; Graham, Timothy (2007). Introduction to manuscript studies. Itaca (N. Y.) London: Cornell university press. ISBN978-0-8014-3863-9.
^Thompson, Daniel. "Medieval Parchment-Making." The Library 16, no. 4 (1935).
^Gamillscheg, Ernst; Ševčenko, Ihor (1991). "Quire". In Kazhdan, Alexander P. (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford University Press. ISBN9780195046526.
^Smith, Margaret M. (2010). "Catchword". In Suarez, Michael; Woudhuysen, H. R. (eds.). The Oxford Companion to the Book. Oxford University Press. ISBN9780198606536.
General and cited references
Diringer, David (1982). The Book Before Printing: Ancient, Medieval and Oriental. New York: Courier Dover Publications. ISBN0-486-24243-9.
Hurtado, L. W. (2006). The Earliest Christian Artifacts: Manuscripts and Christian Origins. Cambridge.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Lyons, Martyn (2011). Books: A Living History. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum. ISBN978-1-60606-083-4.
Repsol S.A. flagshipJenisSociedad AnónimaKode emitenBMAD: REPTemplat:BcbaOTCQX: REPYYIndustriMinyak dan gasPendahuluInstituto Nacional de HidrocarburosDidirikan1986KantorpusatMadrid, SpanyolWilayah operasiSeduniaTokohkunciAntonio Brufau Niubó (Ketua dan CEO)ProdukEksplorasi dan produksi minyak dan gas, perdagangan dan transportasi gas alam dan gas alam cair, pengilangan Minyak, petrokimiaJasaStasiun pengisian bahan bakarPendapatan€60,43 miliar (2010)[1]Laba operasi€7,621 …
Aero Ae 50 adalah prototipe pesawat baling-baling pengintai militer dibangun di Cekoslovakia. Dirancang dengan peran artileri, Ae 50 adalah pesawat udara desain bersayap sepasang sayap tinggi yang tidak biasa, dengan pesawat yang tiba-tiba dihentikan segera belakang dari awak kabin, meninggalkan tailplane untuk dipasang pada ledakan tunggal yang melekat pada sayap. Tailwheel itu dipasang di bagian belakang badan pesawat. Pengaturan ini telah dimaksudkan untuk memaksimalkan lapangan pengamat pand…
يفتقر محتوى هذه المقالة إلى الاستشهاد بمصادر. فضلاً، ساهم في تطوير هذه المقالة من خلال إضافة مصادر موثوق بها. أي معلومات غير موثقة يمكن التشكيك بها وإزالتها. (ديسمبر 2019) 1931 في بيرومعلومات عامةالسنة 1931 1930 في بيرو 1932 في بيرو تعديل - تعديل مصدري - تعديل ويكي بيانات سنوات 1929 1930 1931 193…
Gaston IV dari FoixBiografiKelahiran26 Februari 1423 Kematian10 Juli 1472 (49 tahun)Orreaga-Roncesvalles (en) 8è French co-prince of Andorra (en) 4 Mei 1436 – 25 Juli 1472 ← Jean I, Pangeran Foix – François Fébus dari Navarra → Bersama dengan: Arnau Roger de Pallars (en), Jaime Cardona (en), Roderic de Borja i Escrivà (en) Daftar Comte Foix 1436 (Kalender Masehi Gregorius) – 1472 (Kalender Masehi Gregorius) ← J…
Ini adalah nama Korea; marganya adalah Ha. Ha Yeon-JooLahir6 Agustus 1987 (umur 36)Seoul, Korea SelatanPekerjaanAktrisTahun aktif2008-sekarangAgenHuayi Brothers Nama KoreaHangul하연주 Alih AksaraHa Yeon-juMcCune–ReischauerHa Yŏn-chu Ha Yeon-Joo (lahir 6 Agustus 1987) adalah seorang aktris asal Korea Selatan. Ia juga merupakan anggota Mensa International.[1][2][3][4] Referensi ^ Cho, Soo-Young (29 April 2013). MENSA girl Ha Yeon-Joo to participate i…
Segi tujuh belas beraturanSegi tujuh belas beraturanSisi dan titik pojok17Simbol Schläfli{17}Diagram Coxeter–DynkinGrup simetriDih17, [ ], (*), orderSudut dalam (derajat)≈158,82°Sifatcembung, siklik, sama kaki, isogonal, isotoksalDalam geometri, heptadekagon atau juga disebut sebagai Segi tujuh belas adalah sebuah poligon yang mempunyai tujuh belas sisi dan tujuh belas sudut. Sifat Sebuah poligon mempunyai 119 sisi diagonal. Hal ini dapat dibuktikan melalui rumus jumlah sisi diagonal suatu…
2022 Malayalam film Dear FriendDirected byVineeth KumarWritten bySuhas-Sharfu Arjun LalProduced byShyju KhalidSameer ThahirAshiq UsmanStarringTovino ThomasDarshana RajendranCinematographyShyju KhalidEdited byDeepu JosephMusic byJustin VargheseRelease date 10 June 2022 (2022-06-10) CountryIndiaLanguageMalayalam Dear Friend is a 2022 Indian Malayalam-language comedy-drama film directed by Vineeth Kumar and starring Tovino Thomas and Darshana Rajendran.[1][2][3 …
Between Two Ferns: The MoviePoster filmSutradaraScott AukermanProduserScott AukermanZach GalifianakisCaitlin DaleyMike FarahDitulis olehScott AukermanZach GalifianakisBerdasarkanBetween Two Ferns with Zach Galifianakisoleh Scott Aukermandan B. J. PorterPemeranZach GalifianakisPenata musikAlex WurmanSinematograferBenjamin KasulkePerusahaanproduksiFunny or DieDistributorNetflixTanggal rilis 20 September 2019 (2019-09-20) Durasi82 menitNegaraAmerika SerikatBahasaInggris Between Two Ferns…
Atlas Oryx (dinamai antelop Oryx) adalah helikopter utilitas menengah yang diproduksi oleh Atlas Aircraft Corporation (sekarang Denel Aviation) dari Afrika Selatan. Helikopter ini adalah versi upgrade dan ulang dari Aérospatiale Puma, setara dengan Eurocopter Super Puma, dan menawarkan peningkatan kinerja atas asli, selain memotong biaya operasional sebesar 25 sampai 30%. Referensi http://www.airforce-technology.com/projects/atlas-oryx/ Artikel bertopik pesawat terbang dan penerbangan ini adala…
John WainwrightCol. John Wainwright, s. 1865Lahir(1839-07-13)13 Juli 1839Syracuse, New YorkMeninggal15 April 1915(1915-04-15) (umur 75)Wilmington, DelawareTempat pemakamanArlington National CemeteryPengabdianAmerika SerikatDinas/cabangAngkatan Darat Amerika Serikat Union Army Lama dinas1861–1865Pangkat KolonelKesatuan2nd Pennsylvania Infantry Regiment (penugasan tiga bulan)97th Pennsylvania Infantry Regiment (penugasan tiga tahun, dua masa jabatan)Komandan97th Pennsylvania InfantryPe…
Peta letak Kepulauan Tukang Besi/Wakatobi Kepulauan Tukangbesi atau kepulauan Wakatobi adalah gugusan kepulauan yang terdiri dari empat pulau utama dan sejumlah pulau kecil lainnya, dengan luas kurang lebih 821 km2. Pulau utama tersebut adalah Pulau Wangiwangi, Pulau Kaledupa, Pulau Tomia, dan Pulau Binongko yang biasa disingkat Wakatobi dan sekarang berada di bawah satu administrasi, Kabupaten Wakatobi. Gugusan kepulauan ini dinamakan tukangbesi (pandai besi) karena kepulauan ini terkenal …
Branjangan-lumpur Grallina branjangan-lumpur australia TaksonomiKerajaanAnimaliaFilumChordataKelasAvesOrdoPasseriformesFamiliMonarchidaeGenusGrallina Vieillot, 1816 lbs Grallina adalah genus burung pengicau yang berasal dari Australia dan Papua . Ia adalah anggota kelompok burung yang disebut kehicap. Taksonomi Jenis Gambar Nama ilmiah Nama yang umum Distribusi </img> Grallina cyanoleuca Branjangan-lumpur australia Australia, Timor, dan Papua bagian selatan </img> Grallina bruijni Br…
British warship and polar exploration ship For other ships with the same name, see List of ships named HMS Terror. HMS Terror in the Arctic History United Kingdom NameTerror Ordered30 March 1812 BuilderRobert Davy, Topsham, Devon Laid downSeptember 1812 Launched29 June 1813 CompletedBy 31 July 1813 FateAbandoned 22 April 1848, King William Island Wreck discovered 3 September 2016, Terror Bay General characteristics Class and typeVesuvius-class bomb vessel Tons burthen325 (bm) Length102 ft (…
Les révisions constitutionnelles sous la Cinquième République consistent en vingt-cinq modifications de la Constitution française du 4 octobre 1958. Survenues à partir des premières années de mise en place du régime, elles sont plus nombreuses dans les années 1990 et 2000, du fait d’une volonté de moderniser les institutions d’une part, de construire l’Union européenne et de s’intégrer à l’ordre juridique international de l’autre. À la suite des vingt-cinq révisions su…
Artikel atau sebagian dari artikel ini mungkin diterjemahkan dari List of World Heritage Sites in Serbia di en.wikipedia.org. Isinya masih belum akurat, karena bagian yang diterjemahkan masih perlu diperhalus dan disempurnakan. Jika Anda menguasai bahasa aslinya, harap pertimbangkan untuk menelusuri referensinya dan menyempurnakan terjemahan ini. Anda juga dapat ikut bergotong royong pada ProyekWiki Perbaikan Terjemahan. (Pesan ini dapat dihapus jika terjemahan dirasa sudah cukup tepat. Lihat pu…
История Салава́та охватывает время формирования города Салавата (с 1940-х годов) и населенных пунктов, вошедших в состав города (с XVIII века). Содержание 1 Происхождение названия 2 Причины возникновения города Салавата 3 Предыстория 4 40-е годы 5 50-е годы 6 60-е годы 7 70-е годы 8 80-е год…
هذه المقالة يتيمة إذ تصل إليها مقالات أخرى قليلة جدًا. فضلًا، ساعد بإضافة وصلة إليها في مقالات متعلقة بها. (سبتمبر 2019) جيزا ناغي معلومات شخصية الميلاد 4 أغسطس 1855 جاردوني الوفاة 3 فبراير 1915 (59 سنة) بودابست مواطنة المجر عضو في الأكاديمية المجرية للعلوم الح…
لمعانٍ أخرى، طالع الشركة الوطنية للأسمنت (توضيح). الوطنية للأسمنت ببني سويفالشعارمعلومات عامةالبلد مصرالتأسيس 2018 (منذ 6 سنوات)النوع شركة مساهمة حكوميةالمقر الرئيسي القاهرة، مصرموقع الويب nccegypt.comالمنظومة الاقتصاديةالشركة الأم جهاز مشروعات الخدمة الوطنية للقو…