Cytoplasmic dynein 1 heavy chain 1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the DYNC1H1gene.[5][6][7] Dynein is a molecular motor protein that is responsible for the transport of numerous cellular cargoes to minus ends of microtubules, which are typically found in the center of a cell, or the cell body of neurons. It is located on the 14th chromosome at position 14q32.31.[5] Cytoplasmic dynein transports cargoes along the axon in the retrograde direction, bringing materials from the axon to the cell body. Dynein heavy chain binds microtubules and hydrolyzes ATP at its C-terminal head.[8] It binds cargo via interaction with other dynein subunits at its N-terminal tail.[9]
Interactions
DYNC1H1 has been shown to interact with a large variety of proteins that act as adaptors and regulators. The dynein motor protein complex itself is a large, 1.4 MDa multimeric complex composed of dimerized heavy chains, two intermediate chains, two light intermediate chains, and additional light chains.[8] Other well known adaptors and regulators are Dynactin, PAFAH1B1[10] and CDC5L.[11]
Clinical relevance
Defects in axonal transport, of which dynein plays a key role, have been implicated in conditions ranging from developmental defects in the brain to neurodegenerative disease.[9] Mutations in the DYNC1H1 gene have been associated with epilepsy, neuromuscular disease, brain malformations, intellectual disability, autism, and neurodegenerative diseases.[12] These as a whole are considered to be DYNC1H1-Related Disorders[12] or dyneinopathies.[13] Recent data implies that DYNC1H1-Related Disorders should be considered progressive, though the trigger and symptoms of that progress vary from patient to patient.[12] As of September 1, 2024, nearly 1900 gene variants have been identified and classified as either pathogenic, likely pathogenic, or variants of unknown significance.[14] The vast majority of these are missense mutations. Due to a high degree of pleiotropy, the genotype-phenotype spectrum is still developing.[15] Given the heterogeneity of symptoms, large gene size, and the high conservation of the gene,[16] it is likely that many patients remain undiagnosed. In recent larger cohort studies, the average age of patients was only 12 years old, likely due to symptoms overlap with other disorders like cerebral palsy and idiopathic autism and intellectual disability.[12]
Prior to genetic testing, clinical diagnoses for these symptoms range from Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease[17] as well as spinal muscular atrophy with lower extremity predominance 1 (SMA-LED1).[18] Another symptom is Autosomal dominant non-syndromic intellectual disability.[19] DYNC1H1 gene variants have been increasingly correlated with Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis,[20][21] malformations of cortical development, and seizure disorders.[22] It is estimated that roughly 40% of patients with DYNC1H1 gene variants have epilepsy, and 80-92% of those with DYNC1H1-related epilepsy have malformations of cortical development, including both lissencephaly and polymicrogyria.[22][23]
Society and Culture
The DYNC1H1 Association (dync1h1.org), a non-profit patient advocacy organization, was founded in 2023 with the goal of accelerating research into treatments for DYNC1H1-related disorders. The three founders are parents of children who have DYNC1H1-related disorders.
^ abCason SE, Holzbaur EL (November 2022). "Selective motor activation in organelle transport along axons". Nature Reviews. Molecular Cell Biology. 23 (11): 699–714. doi:10.1038/s41580-022-00491-w. PMID35637414.
^ abCuccurullo C, Cerulli Irelli E, Ugga L, Riva A, D'Amico A, Cabet S, et al. (July 2024). "Clinical features and genotype-phenotype correlations in epilepsy patients with de novo DYNC1H1 variants". Epilepsia. doi:10.1111/epi.18054. PMID38953796.
^Liu W, Cheng M, Zhu Y, Chen Y, Yang Y, Chen H, et al. (April 2023). "DYNC1H1-related epilepsy: Genotype-phenotype correlation". Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology. 65 (4): 534–543. doi:10.1111/dmcn.15414. PMID36175372.
Neesen J, Koehler MR, Kirschner R, Steinlein C, Kreutzberger J, Engel W, et al. (October 1997). "Identification of dynein heavy chain genes expressed in human and mouse testis: chromosomal localization of an axonemal dynein gene". Gene. 200 (1–2): 193–202. doi:10.1016/S0378-1119(97)00417-4. PMID9373155.
Habermann A, Schroer TA, Griffiths G, Burkhardt JK (January 2001). "Immunolocalization of cytoplasmic dynein and dynactin subunits in cultured macrophages: enrichment on early endocytic organelles". Journal of Cell Science. 114 (Pt 1): 229–240. doi:10.1242/jcs.114.1.229. PMID11112706.
