In its vision of heresy, the Catholic Church makes a distinction between material and formal heresy. Material heresy means in effect "holding erroneous doctrines through no fault of one's own" due to inculpable ignorance and "is neither a crime nor a sin" since the individual has made the error in good faith.[1] Formal heresy is "the wilful and persistent adherence to an error in matters of faith" on the part of a baptised person. As such it is a grave sin and involves ipso factoexcommunication; a Catholic that embraces a formal heresy is considered to have automatically separated his or her soul from the Catholic Church. Here "matters of faith" means dogmas which have been proposed by the infallible magisterium of the Church[2] and, in addition to this intellectual error, "pertinacity in the will" in maintaining it in opposition to the teaching of the Church must be present.[3]
Heresy has been a concern in Christian communities at least since the writing of the Second Epistle of Peter: "Even as there shall be false teachers among you, who privily shall bring in damnable heresies, even denying the Lord that bought them" (2 Peter 2:1). In the first two or three centuries of the early Church, heresy and schism were not clearly distinguished. A similar overlapping occurred in medieval scholasticism. Heresy is understood today to mean the denial of revealed truth as taught by the Church.[1] Nineteenth-century theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher defined it as "that which preserved the appearance of Christianity, and yet contradicted its essence".[4] This article contains the movements and denominations which have been declared as heresy by the Catholic Church.
The following listing contains those opinions which were either explicitly condemned by Chalcedonian Christianity before 1054 or are of later origin but similar. Details of some modern opinions deemed to be heretical by the Catholic Church are listed in an appendix. All lists are in alphabetical order.
Traditionally, orthodoxy and heresy have been viewed in relation to the "orthodoxy" as an authentic lineage of tradition. Other forms of Christianity were viewed as deviant streams of thought and therefore "heterodox", or heretical. This view was dominant until the publication of Walter Bauer's Rechtgläubigkeit und Ketzerei im ältesten Christentum ("Orthodoxy and heresy in ancient Christianity") in 1934. Bauer endeavoured to rethink early Christianity historically, independent from the views of the church. He argued that originally unity was based on a common relationship with the same Lord rather than on formally defined doctrines and that a wide variety of views was tolerated. With time, some of these views were seen as inadequate. He went on to attribute the definition of "orthodoxy" to the increasing power and influence of the Church of Rome. In 1959, Henry Chadwick argued that all Christian communities were linked by the foundational events which occurred in Jerusalem and continued to be of defining importance in the forging of doctrinal orthodoxy. McGrath comments that historically Chadwick's account appears to be much more plausible.[5]
The term Christology has two meanings in theology: it can be used in the narrow sense of the question as to how the divine and human are related in the person of Jesus Christ, or alternatively of the overall study of his life and work.[6] Here it is used in the restricted, narrow sense.
The orthodox teaching concerning the Trinity, as finally developed and formally agreed at Constantinople in 381,[7] is that God the Father, God the Son, and the Holy Spirit were all strictly one being in three hypostases, misleadingly translated as "persons".[8] The Christological question then arose as to how Jesus Christ could be both divine and human. This was formally resolved after much debate by the Ecumenical Councils of 431, 451 and 680 (Ephesus, Chalcedon and Constantinople III).
Belief that Jesus was born as a mere (non-divine) man, was supremely virtuous and that he was adopted later as the "Son of God" by the descent of the Spirit on him.
Belief that Jesus had a human body and lower soul (the seat of the emotions) but a divine mind. Apollinaris further taught that the souls of men were propagated by other souls, as well as their bodies.
Denial of the true divinity of Jesus Christ taking various specific forms, but all agreed that Jesus Christ was created by the Father, that he had a beginning in time, and that the title "Son of God" was a courtesy one.[11]
The doctrine is associated with Arius (c. AD 250–336) who lived and taught in Alexandria, Egypt.
Arius was first pronounced a heretic at the First Council of Nicaea, he was later exonerated as a result of imperial pressure and finally declared a heretic after his death. The heresy was finally resolved in 381 by the First Council of Constantinople.
All forms denied that Jesus Christ is "consubstantial with the Father" but proposed either "similar in substance", "similar", or "dissimilar" as the correct alternative.
Belief that Jesus' physical body was an illusion, as was his crucifixion; that is, Jesus only seemed to have a physical body and to physically die, but in reality, he was incorporeal, a pure spirit, and hence could not physically die.
Tendencies existed in the 1st century, but it was most notably embraced by Gnostics in subsequent centuries.
Docetism was rejected by the ecumenical councils and mainstream Christianity, and largely died out during the first millennium AD.
Gnostic movements that survived past that time, such as Catharism, incorporated docetism into their beliefs, but such movements were destroyed by the Albigensian Crusade (1209–1229).
While accepting the divinity of Jesus Christ as affirmed at Nicaea in 325, they denied that of the Holy Spirit which they saw as a creation of the Son, and a servant of the Father and the Son.
Allegedly founded in the 4th century by Bishop Macedonius I of Constantinople, Eustathius of Sebaste was their principal theologian.[13]
This is what prompted the addition of "And in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the Giver of Life, Who proceedeth from the Father, Who with the Father and the Son is equally worshipped and glorified, Who spake by the Prophets", into the Nicene Creed at the second ecumenical council.
Refuted by Marcus Eremita in his book Eis ton Melchisedek ("Against the Melchisedekites")[14]
It is uncertain whether the sect survived beyond the 9th century. They were probably scattered across Anatolia and the Balkans following the destruction of Tephrike.
An overemphasis on the indivisibility of God (the Father) at the expense of the other "persons" of the Trinity leading to either Sabellianism (Modalism) or to Adoptionism.
Stressing the "monarchy" of God was in Eastern theology a legitimate way of affirming his oneness, also the Father as the unique source of divinity. It became heretical when pushed to the extremes indicated.
Belief that Christ's divinity dominates and overwhelms his humanity, as opposed to the Chalcedonian position which holds that Christ has two natures, one divine and one human or the Miaphysite position which holds that the human nature and pre-incarnate divine nature of Christ were united as one divine-human nature from the point of the Incarnation onwards.
Eutyches was excommunicated in 448. Monophysitism and Eutyches were rejected at the Council of Chalcedon in 451. Monophysitism is also rejected by the Oriental Orthodox Churches
Belief that Jesus Christ had two natures but only one will. This is contrary to the orthodox interpretation of Christology, which teaches that Jesus Christ has two wills (human and divine) corresponding to his two natures
Nestorius rejected the title Theotokos for the Virgin Mary, and proposed Christotokos as more suitable. Many of Nestorius' supporters relocated to Sassanid Persia, where they affiliated with the local Christian community, known as the Church of the East. Over the next decades, the Church of the East became increasingly Nestorian in doctrine, leading it to be known alternately as the Nestorian Church.
Belief that the Father, Son and Holy Spirit are three characterizations of one God, rather than three distinct "persons" in one God.
First formally stated by Noetus of Smyrna c. 190, refined by Sabellius c. 210 who applied the names merely to different roles of God in the history and economy of salvation.
Noetus was condemned by the presbyters of Smyrna. Tertullian wrote Adversus Praxeam against this tendency and Sabellius was condemned by Pope Callistus.
Alternative names: Patripassianism, Modalism, Modalistic Monarchianism
Gnosticism refers to a diverse, syncretisticreligious movement consisting of various belief systems generally united in the teaching that humans are divine souls trapped in a material world created by an imperfect god, the demiurge, who is frequently identified with the AbrahamicGod. Gnosticism is a rejection (sometimes from an ascetic perspective) and vilification of the human body and of the material world or cosmos. Gnosticism teaches duality in Material (Matter) versus Spiritual or Body (evil) versus Soul (good). Gnosticism teaches that the natural or material world will and should be destroyed (total annihilation) by the true spiritual God in order to free mankind from the reign of the false God or Demiurge.
A common misperception is caused by the fact that, in the past, "Gnostic" had a similar meaning to the current usage of the word mystic. There were some Orthodox Christians who as mystics (in the modern sense) taught gnosis (Knowledge of the God or the Good) who could be called gnostics in a positive sense (e.g. Diadochos of Photiki).
Whereas formerly Gnosticism was considered mostly a corruption of Christianity, it now seems clear that traces of Gnostic systems can be discerned some centuries before the Christian Era.[15] Gnosticism may have been earlier than the 1st century, thus predating Jesus Christ.[16] It spread through the Mediterranean and Middle East before and during the 2nd and 3rd centuries, becoming a dualisticheresy to Judaism (see Notzrim), Christianity and Hellenic philosophy in areas controlled by the Roman Empire and Arian Goths (see Huneric), and the Persian Empire. Conversion to Islam and the Albigensian Crusade (1209–1229) greatly reduced the remaining number of Gnostics throughout the Middle Ages, though a few isolated communities continue to exist to the present. Gnostic ideas became influential in the philosophies of various esotericmystical movements of the late 19th and 20th centuries in Europe and North America, including some that explicitly identify themselves as revivals or even continuations of earlier gnostic groups.
Founded in the 4th century by Priscillian, derived from the Gnostic-Manichaean doctrines taught by Marcus. Priscillian was put to death by the emperor Magnus Maximus for the crime of magic.
Condemned by Synod of Zaragoza in 380.
Increased during the 5th century despite efforts to stop it. In the 6th century, Priscillianism declined and died out soon after the Synod of Braga in 563.
Any view which holds that Christians are freed by grace from obligations of any moral law. St Paul had to refute a charge of this type made by opponents because of his attitude to the Mosaic Law (Romans 3:8)[19]
Some gnostics (e.g. Ophites and Nicolaitans) taught that since the matter was opposed to the spirit, the body was unimportant. Similar views were found among some anabaptists in the sixteenth century as a consequence of justification by faith and later among some sects in seventeenth-century England.
Donatists were rigorists, holding that the church must be a church of saints, not sinners and that sacraments administered by traditores were invalid. They also regarded martyrdom as the supreme Christian virtue and regarded those that actively sought martyrdom as saints.
The essence (ousia) of the Trinity could be perceived by the carnal senses.
The Threefold God transformed himself into a single hypostasis (substance) in order to unite with the souls of the perfect.
God has taken different forms in order to reveal himself to the senses.
Only such sensible revelations of God confer perfection upon the Christian.
The state of perfection, freedom from the world and passion, is attained solely by prayer, not through the church or sacraments. ("Euchites" means "Those who pray")
The belief that icons are idols and should be destroyed.[29]
From late in the seventh century onwards some parts of the Greek Church reacted against the veneration of icons. In 726 Emperor Leo III ordered the destruction of all icons and persecuted those who refused. The policy continued under his successors till about 780. Later Leo V launched a second attempt which continued till the death of the emperor Theophilus in 842
Condemned by Nicea II in 787 which regulated the veneration
Leo III may have been motivated by the belief that the veneration of icons, particularly in the excessive form it often took, was the chief obstacle to the conversion of Jews and Muslims
An Early Christiandualistbelief system. Marcion affirmed Jesus Christ as the saviour sent by God and Paul as his chief apostle, but he rejected the Hebrew Bible and the Hebrew God. Marcionists believed that the wrathful Hebrew God was a separate and lower entity than the all-forgiving God of the New Testament. This belief was in some ways similar to Gnostic Christian theology, but in other ways different.
Many early apologists, such as Tertullian on his Adversus Marcionem (year 207) condemned Marcionism
Marcionism continued in the West for 300 years, although Marcionistic ideas persisted much longer.[31] Marcionism continued in the East for some centuries later. Similar heresies would arise with Catharism in 1200s France and Positive Christianity in Nazi Germany.
Named for its founder Montanus, Montanism originated at Hierapolis. It spread rapidly to other regions in the Roman Empire during the period before Christianity was generally tolerated or legal.
The churches of Asia Minor excommunicated Montanists.[33] Around 177, Apollinarius, Bishop of Hierapolis, presided over a synod which condemned the New Prophecy.[34] The leaders of the churches of Lyon and Vienne in Gaul responded to the New Prophecy in 177
Although the orthodox mainstream Christian church prevailed against Montanism within a few generations, labelling it a heresy, the sect persisted in some isolated places into the 8th century.
Named after Pelagius (354–420/440). The theology was later developed by C(a)elestius and Julian of Eclanum into a complete system.[35] and refuted by Augustine of Hippo (who had for a time (385–395) held similar opinions[36]) but his final position never gained general acceptance in the East.
Pelagianism was attacked in the Council of Diospolis[37] and condemned in 418 at the Council of Carthage[38] and the decision confirmed at the Council of Ephesus in 431.
Belief that Augustine had gone too far in attacking Pelagianism and taught that some come to faith by mercy and grace but others through free will alone.
This view arose in the East and was purportedly taught by John Cassian, who was opposed by Prosper of Aquitaine. Whether Cassian taught this is disputable.
Condemned by the Council of Orange in 529 which slightly weakened some of Augustine's more extreme statements.[39]
The label "Semipelagianism" dates from the seventeenth century.
A Gnostic dualistic sect that was both Adoptionist and Manichaean. Their beliefs were a synthesis of Armenian Paulicianism and the Bulgarian Slavonic Church reform movement.
Emerged in Bulgaria between 927 and 970 and spread into the Byzantine Empire, Serbia, Bosnia, Italy and France.
Catharism had its roots in the Paulician movement in Armenia and the Bogomils of Bulgaria, with a strong dualist influence against the physical world, regarded as evil, thus denied that Jesus could become incarnate and still be the son of God.
First appeared in the Languedoc region of France in the 11th century and flourished in the 12th and 13th centuries. Catharism had its roots in the Paulicians and the Bogomils with whom the Paulicians merged.
After several decades of harassment and re-proselytizing, and the systematic destruction of their scripture, the sect was exhausted and could find no more adepts. The last known Cathar prefect in the Languedoc, Guillaume Bélibaste, was executed in 1321. Anti-Old Testament ideas later revived by Positive Christianity in Nazi Germany.
Mixed mystical beliefs with Christianity. Its practitioners believed that it was possible to reach perfection on earth through a life of austerity and spiritualism. They believed that they could communicate directly with God and did not need the Christian church for intercession.
Extreme proponents of the rule of SaintFrancis of Assisi, especially with regard to poverty, and regarded the wealth of the Church as scandalous, and that of individual churchmen as invalidating their status.
Appeared in the 14th and 15th centuries, principally in Italy
Declared heretical by the Church in 1296 by Boniface VIII.
Henry of Lausanne lived in France in the first half of the 12th century. His preaching began around 1116 and he died imprisoned around 1148.
In 1151 some Henricians still remained in Languedoc, for Matthew Paris relates that a young girl, who gave herself out to be miraculously inspired by the Virgin Mary, was reputed to have converted a great number of the disciples of Henry of Lausanne.
Belief that three, rather than four nails were used to crucify Christ and that a Roman soldier pierced him with a spear on the left, rather than the right side.
Attributed to Albigenses and Waldenses
Supposedly condemned by Pope Innocent III, but most likely never actually considered a heresy by said Pope.[40]
Waldensians endured near annihilation in the 17th century. Descendants of this movement still exist. Over time, the denomination joined the Genevan or Reformed branch of Protestantism.
King Henry IV passed the De heretico comburendo in 1401, which did not specifically ban the Lollards, but prohibited translating or owning the Bible and authorised burning heretics at the stake.
The five solae are five Latin phrases (or slogans) that emerged during the Protestant Reformation and summarize the Reformers' basic theological beliefs in opposition to the teaching of the Catholic Church of the day.
There are "over 33,000 denominations in 238 countries".[43] There are about 1.17 billion Protestants worldwide, constituting nearly half of all Christians.[44][45] among approximately 1.5–2.1 billion Christians.[46][47]
In addition to the Five Solas, most Protestants disbelieve transubstantiation. See Eucharistic heresies below.
The belief that God chooses to save certain people, not because of any foreseen merit or good in themselves, but totally by his sovereign choice. Calvinism has been summed up in five points, known as TULIP.
Protestant groups display a wide variety of different doctrines. However, the early Reformers all stressed the five solae (1) Sola scriptura ("by Scripture alone"); the conviction that only the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments should be used to form doctrine, in contradistinction to the Catholic view that both Scripture and the magisterium of the Church set dogma. (2) Sola fide ("by faith alone"); the conviction that believers are justified by faith in Christ alone, rather than faith in Christ and good works. (3) Sola gratia ("by grace alone"); the conviction that believers are saved by God's grace alone, and not by human works. (4) Solus Christus ("by Christ alone"); the conviction that the work of salvation is entirely the work of God through the mediatorial work of Christ alone. (5) Soli Deo gloria ("for God's glory alone"); the conviction that the work of salvation is entirely for God's glory alone.[49][50]
Some believe the great diversity of Protestant doctrines stems from the doctrine of private judgment, which denies the infallible authority of the Catholic Church and claims that each individual is to interpret Scripture for himself.[51] However, the early Reformers warned against private interpretation, emphasizing, instead, the connection and continuity with the ancient church, and its dogma.
Since the mid-20th century, the attitude of the Catholic Church to Protestantism has changed, as evidenced by ecumenical relations with Protestant Churches.[53] Then-cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, later Pope Benedict XVI, wrote that
There is no appropriate category in Catholic thought for the phenomenon of Protestantism today (one could say the same of the relationship to the separated churches of the East). It is obvious that the old category of ‘heresy’ is no longer of any value. Heresy, for Scripture and the early Church, includes the idea of a personal decision against the unity of the Church, and heresy’s characteristic is pertinacia, the obstinacy of him who persists in his own private way. This, however, cannot be regarded as an appropriate description of the spiritual situation of the Protestant Christian. In the course of now centuries-old history, Protestantism has made an important contribution to the realization of the Christian faith, fulfilling a positive function in the development of the Christian message and, above all, often giving rise to a sincere and profound faith in the individual non-Catholic Christian, whose separation from the Catholic affirmation has nothing to do with the pertinacia characteristic of heresy. Perhaps we may here invert a saying of St. Augustine’s: that an old schism becomes a heresy. The very passage of time alters the character of a division so that an old division is something essentially different from a new one. Something that was once rightly condemned as heresy cannot later simply become true, but it can gradually develop its own positive ecclesial nature, with which the individual is presented as his church and in which he lives as a believer, not as a heretic. This organization of one group, however, ultimately has an effect on the whole. The conclusion is inescapable, then: Protestantism today is something different from heresy in the traditional sense, a phenomenon whose true theological place has not yet been determined.[54]
An 18th-century German movement directed towards the nationalizing of Catholicism, the restriction of the power of the papacy in favour of that of the episcopate, and the reunion of the dissident churches with Catholic Christendom
The belief that civil authority – often the State's authority (originally that of the King of France) – over the Catholic Church is comparable to that of the Pope
A group of related heresies which were defined as the endorsement of full freedom of the press, liberalism, individualism, and separation of church and state, and as an insistence upon individual initiative, which could be incompatible with the principle of Catholicism of obedience to authority.
Religious movement which expects the imminent return of Jesus. Jehovah's Witnesses believe in a one-person God as opposed to the Trinity. Jesus is the first thing God created (as Michael the Archangel).[55]
Religious movement that believes in a "Godhead" of separate and distinct beings: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, as well as a Heavenly Mother. Further, it is believed that all humans as children of God can become exalted, or in other words, "As man now is God once was: As God now is, a man may be."
Mormons would say that theirs is the truest form of Christianity while acknowledging that other Christian denominations hold a lesser truth. While accepting the validity of the traditional Christian Bible, Mormons also attribute scriptural authority to the Book of Mormon, the Doctrine and Covenants, and the Pearl of Great Price. Mormons believe in the divinity of Jesus Christ but do not accept the doctrine of the Trinity. Mormons worship Jesus Christ and God the Father exclusively (and not Joseph Smith, whom they believe to have been a prophet only), and by this qualification meet the definition of non-Trinitarian Christianity.
Many Protestant sects do not accept Mormons as true Christians, however, and no major Christian group accepts the validity of Mormon baptisms – a former Mormon would need to be re-baptized.[57]
Criticized, called blasphemous, described as devil worship, and declared incompatible with the Christian faith by Catholic leaders,[61][62][63][64] including the Catholic Archdiocese of Mexico City[65] and some Catholic Bishops in the United States[66] Cardinal Gianfranco Ravasi, President of the Pontifical Council for Culture, has repeatedly denounced devotion to Santa Muerte, calling it "the celebration of devastation and of hell."[67] Commentators note that it is relatively rare that a folk saint is condemned by Vatican officials.[68]
^G. Uhlhorn, "Ebionites", in: A Religious Encyclopaedia or Dictionary of Biblical, Historical, Doctrinal, and Practical Theology, 3rd ed. (edited by Philip Schaff), p. 684–685 (vol. 2).
^S. Runciman, The Medieval Manichee: A Study of the Christian Dualist Heresy (Cambridge, 1947)
^Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church art. Iconoclasm
^(115 years and 6 months from the Crucifixion, according to Tertullian's reckoning in Adversus Marcionem, xv)
^Janos, N. A. Berdyaev (Berdiaev); translated by Fr Stephen. "Marcionism". Retrieved 24 December 2016.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^Simon, Edith (1966). Great Ages of Man: The Reformation. Time-Life Books. pp. 120–121. ISBN0-662-27820-8.
^World Christian Encyclopedia (2nd edition). David Barrett, George Kurian and Todd Johnson. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001
^"Status of Global Christianity, 2024, in the Context of 1900–2050"(PDF). Center for the Study of Global Christianity, Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary. Retrieved 23 May 2024. Protestants: 625,606,000; Independents: 421,689,000; Unaffiliated Christians: 123,508,000
^Jay Diamond, Larry. Plattner, Marc F. and Costopoulos, Philip J. World Religions and Democracy. 2005, page 119.(also in PDF file, p49), saying "Not only do Protestants presently constitute 13 percent of the world's population—about 800 million people—but since 1900 Protestantism has spread rapidly in Africa, Asia, and Latin America."
^"between 1,250 and 1,750 million adherents, depending on the criteria employed": McGrath, Alister E. Christianity: An Introduction. 2006, page xv1.
^"2.1 thousand million Christians": Hinnells, John R. The Routledge Companion to the Study of Religion. 2005, page 441.
^Buckley, Theodore Alois (1851). The Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent. London: George Routledge and Co. ISBN978-1-298-54294-6.
^Power, Maria (2007). From Ecumenism to Community Relations. Irish Academic Press. ISBN978-0-7165-3380-1. This change came in 1964 with Vatican II's Decree on Ecumenism, which 'signalled a more positive attitude towards ecumenism among Catholics worldwide'. This change in attitude by the Catholic Church, and the Protestant Churches' reaction to it, was one of the most crucial factors in the development of contact between the hierarchies of the Protestant and Catholic Churches.
^Joseph Ratzinger (1993). The Meaning of Christian Brotherhood. Ignatius Press. p. 88. ISBN978-0-89870-446-4.
^Doctrinal Note of the Catholic Bishops of Canada concerning the Army of Mary The Army of Mary, through their misguided interpretation of Catholic teaching, would in effect not only rob Mary of her unique, irreplaceable role in salvation history, but their so-called "reincarnation" of Mary all but renders superfluous Mary's on-going intercession in heavenly glory. The Mary of the Gospel and Catholic tradition is in heaven, not on earth. It is the teaching of the Catholic Church that Mary's life is both unique and historical, and as such cannot be repeated, reproduced, or otherwise "reincarnated" ... The presumed private revelation upon which the Army of Mary bases its claim to legitimacy does in fact introduce new and erroneous doctrines about the Virgin Mary and her role in the economy of salvation history. It significantly adds to Christ's definitive Revelation. It would have its followers believe, for example, that their "Immaculate" is co-eternal with the Triune God, and that although she was once the historical mother of Jesus, she is now "reincarnated" and "dwells" in the very person of the recipient of these presumed private revelations.
