Proposed concept for incidents of non-combat killing by a government or state
This article is about the concept proposed by genocide scholars to define incidents of non-
killing by government or state. For multiple killings committed by an individual or group, see Mass murder. For other multiple killings by government or state, see Homicide by state actors.
Mass killing is a concept which has been proposed by genocide scholars who wish to define incidents of non-combat killing which are perpetrated by a government or a state. A mass killing is commonly defined as the killing of group members without the intention to eliminate the whole group,[1] or otherwise the killing of large numbers of people without a clear group membership.[2]
Mass killing is used by a number of genocide scholars because genocide (its strict definition) does not cover mass killing events in which no specific ethnic or religious groups are targeted, or events in which perpetrators do not intend to eliminate whole groups or significant parts of them. Genocide scholars use different models in order to explain and predict the onset of mass killing events. There has been little consensus[3] and no generally-accepted terminology,[4] prompting scholars, such as Anton Weiss-Wendt,[5] to describe comparative attempts a failure.[6] Genocide scholarship rarely appears in mainstream disciplinary journals.[7]
Terminology
Several different terms are used to describe the intentional killing of large numbers of noncombatants,[5] but there is no consensus or generally-accepted terminology.[8][9][10][11]Mass killing has emerged as a "more straightforward" term than genocide or politicide.[12] Mass killing was proposed by genocide scholars in attempts to collect a uniform global database of genocidal events and identify statistical models for prediction of onset of mass killings. Atsushi Tago and Frank Wayman reference mass killing as defined by Valentino and state that even with a lower threshold (10,000 killed per year, 1,000 killed per year, or even 1), "autocratic regimes, especially communist, are prone to mass killing generically, but not so strongly inclined (i.e. not statistically significantly inclined) toward geno-politicide."[13] Other terms used by several authors to describe mass killings of non-combattents include:
Classicide – "intended mass killing of entire social classes",[14] which sociologist Michael Mann considers more apt than genocide for describing killings with the intent of suppression of the bourgeoisie in communist states.[15]
Democide – political scientist Rudolph Rummel defined democide as "the intentional killing of an unarmed or disarmed person by government agents acting in their authoritative capacity and pursuant to government policy or high command";[17] according to Rummel, this definition covers a wide range of deaths, including forced labor and concentration camp victims, killings by unofficial private groups, extrajudicial summary killings and mass deaths in deliberate famines as well as killings by de facto governments, e.g. civil war killings.[18] Rummel's democide concept is similar to geno-politicide, but there are two important differences. First, an important prerequisite for geno-politicide is government's intent to destroy a specific group.[19] In contrast, democide deals with wider range of cases, including the cases when governments are engaged in random killing either directly or due to the acts of criminal omission and neglect.[17] Second, whereas some lower threshold exists for a killing event to be considered geno-politicide, there is no low threshold for democide which covers any murder of any number of persons by any government.[17]
Genocide – under the Genocide Convention, the crime of genocide generally applies to mass murder of ethnic rather than political or social groups.[20] Protection of political groups was eliminated from the United Nations resolution after a second vote because many states anticipated that clause to apply unneeded limitations to their right to suppress internal disturbances.[21]Genocide is also a popular term for political killings which are studied academically as democide and politicide.[13]
Mass killing – referencing earlier definitions,[nb 1] Joan Esteban, Massimo Morelli, and Dominic Rohner define mass killings as "the killings of substantial numbers of human beings, when not in the course of military action against the military forces of an avowed enemy, under the conditions of the essential defenselessness and helplessness of the victims."[23] Valentino defines the term as "the intentional killing of a massive number of noncombatants",[24] where a "massive number" is at least 50,000 intentional deaths over the course of five years or less;[25] this is the most accepted quantitative minimum threshold for the term.[23][26]
Politicide – some genocide scholars propose the concept of politicide to describe the killing of groups that would not otherwise be covered by the Genocide Convention.[27]Barbara Harff studies genocide and politicide, sometimes shortened as geno-politicide, to include the mass killing of political, economic, ethnic, and cultural groups.[13]
Benjamin Valentino outlines two major categories of mass killings: dispossessive mass killing and coercive mass killing. The first category defines three types: communist, ethnic, and territorial, containing the following scenarios of ethnic cleansing, killings that accompany agrarian reforms in some Communist states, and killings during colonial expansion, among others. The second category includes the types: counterguerrilla, terrorist, and imperialist, containing the following scenarios of killing during counterinsurgentwarfare, and killings as part of the imperialist conquests by the Axis powers during the World War II, among others.[32]
Topology of mass killings as defined by Valentino, 2003[33]
Agricultural collectivization and political terror
The Holodomor (1931–1933) Great Leap Forward (1958–1962) Cambodian genocide (1975–1979)
Fascist
Political terror and ethnic cleansing
Spanish White Terror (1936–1975) The Holocaust (1939–1945) Argentine Dirty War (1974–1983)
Ethnic
Ethnic cleansing
Turkish Armenia (1915–1918) The Holocaust (1939–1945) Rwandan genocide (1994)
Territorial
Colonial enlargement
American Indian Wars (15th–20th centuries) Genocide of the Herero in German South-West Africa (1904–1907)
Expansionist wars
German annexation of western Poland (1939–1945) Genocide of the Herero in German South-West Africa (1904–1907)
Coercive mass killing
Counterguerrilla
Guerrilla wars
Algerian war of independence from France (1954–1962) Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979–1989) Ethiopian civil war (1970s–1980s)
Terrorist
Terror bombing
Allied bombings of Germany and Japan (1940–1945) The Blitz (1940–1941)
Starvation blockades/siege warfare
Allied naval blockade of Germany (1914–1919) Nigerian land blockade Biafra (1967–1970)
Sub-state/insurgent terrorism
FLN terrorism in Algerian war of independence against France (1954–1962) RENAMO terrorism in Mozambique (1976–1992) AUC terrorism in Colombia (1997–2008)
Imperialist
Imperial conquests and rebellions
German occupation of Western Europe (1940–1945) Japan's empire in East Asia (1910–1945)
Analysis
Benjamin Valentino does not consider ideology or regime-type as an important factor that explains mass killings, and outlines Communist mass killing as a subtype of dispossessive mass killing, which is considered as a complication of original theory his book is based on.[13] About why it occurs,[34] Valentino states that ideology, paranoia, and racism can shape leaders' beliefs for why genocide and mass killing may be justified.[35] Unlike Rudolph Rummel and first-generation studies, Valentino does not see authoritarianism or totalitarianism as explaining mass killing;[36] it is not ideology or regime-type but the leader's motive that matters and can explain it,[37] which is in line with second-generation scholarship.[37]
Manus Midlarsky also focuses on leaders' decision making but his case selection and general conclusions are different from Valentino's. Midlarsky has a more narrower definition of the dependent variable and only analyzes three case studies (the Armenian genocide, the Holocaust, and the Rwanda genocide). Midlarsky tries to explain why individuals may comply with the culprits, why politicide rather than genocide happened in Cambodia (Cambodian genocide), and why ethnic minorities, such as Greeks in the Ottoman Empire and Jews in the Second Polish Republic, were not targeted for genocide. Like Michael Mann and Valentino to a lesser extent, Midlarsky mainly addresses genocides that did not take place. Both Midlarsky and Valentino mainly focus on proximate conditions, while Mann considers genocide within the broad context of ideologies and nation-states development.[38]
Global databases of mass killings
At least two global databases of mass killings are available. The first compilation by Rudolph Rummel covers a time period from the beginning of the 20th century until 1987 covering democide, while the second compilation by Barbara Harff combines politicide and genocide since 1955. The Harff database is the most frequently used by genocide scholars, while the Rummel database is a good framework for studying mass killings during the 1900–1987 period.[13]
These data are intended mostly for statistical analysis of mass killings in attempt to identify the best predictors for their onset. According to Harff, these data are not necessarily the most accurate for a given country, since some sources are general genocide scholars and not experts on local history.[17] A comparative analysis of the Yugoslav data in two databases revealed a significant difference between the figures of killed per years and low correlation between Rummel's and Harff's data sets. Tomislav Dulić criticized[39] Rummel's generally higher numbers as arising from flaws in Rummel's statistical methodology, and Rummel's response[40] was not convincing.[41]
Another comparative analysis of the two complete databases by Atsushi Tago and Frank W. Wayman revealed that the significant difference between the figures is explained by Harff's dataset of politicide-geoncide being essentially a subset of Rummel's dataset, where he includes other types of killings in addition to politicide-genocide.[13]
Genocides and politicides from 1955 to 2001 as listed by Harff, 2003[19][nb 3]
^Charny 2000 defines generic genocide as "the mass killing of substantial numbers of human beings, when not in the course of military action against the military forces of an avowed enemy, under conditions of the essential defenselessness and helplessness of the victims." In the 2006 article "Development, Democracy, and Mass Killings", William Easterly, Roberta Gatti, and Sergio Kurlat adopted Charny's definition of generic genocide for their use of mass killing and massacre to avoid the politics of genocide altogether.[22]
^Staub 1989, p. 8: "Mass killing means killing members of a group without the intention to eliminate the whole group or killing large numbers of people without a precise definition of group membership."
^Staub 2011, p. 100: "In contrast to genocide, I see mass killing as 'killing (or in other ways destroying) members of a group without the intention to eliminate the whole group, or killing large numbers of people' without a focus on group membership."
^Krain 1997, pp. 331–332: "The literatures on state-sponsored mass murder and state terrorism have been plagued by definitional problems."
^Valentino 2004, p. 6: "No generally accepted terminology exists to describe the intentional killing of large numbers of noncombatants."
^Weiss-Wendt 2008, p. 42: "There is barely any other field of study that enjoys so little consensus on defining principles such as definition of genocide, typology, application of a comparative method, and timeframe."
^Verdeja 2012, p. 307: "Although the field has grown enormously over the past decade and a half, genocide scholarship still rarely appears in mainstream disciplinary journals."
^Ott 2011, p. 53: "As is customary in the literature on mass killing of civilians there is a need to restate here what mass killing is about. Although many definitions have been used — 'genocide', 'politicide' and 'democide' — there has emerged a sort of consensus that the term 'mass killing' is much more straightforward than either genocide or politicide."
^Straus 2007, p. 116: "Among them, Valentino identifies two major types, each with three subtypes. The first major type is 'dispossessive mass killing,' which includes (1) 'communist mass killings' in which leaders seek to transform societies according to communist principles; (2) 'ethnic mass killings,' in which leaders forcibly remove an ethnic population; and (3) mass killing as leaders acquire and repopulate land. The second major type of mass killing is 'coercive mass killing,' which includes (1) killing in wars when leaders cannot defeat opponents using conventional means; (2) 'terrorist' mass killing when leaders use violence to force an opposing side to surrender; and (3) killing during the creation of empires when conquering leaders try to defeat resistance and intimidate future resistance."
^Valentino 2004, p. 60: "I content mass killing occurs when powerful groups come to believe it is the best available means to accomplish certain radical goals, counter specific types of threats, or solve difficult military problem." See also p. 70 to read Valentino outlining his proposed two major categories of mass killing.
^Straus 2007, pp. 484–485: "Valentino makes a quite different argument. The pivot of his cogent and parsimonious analysis is that genocide and mass killing emerge from the strategic calculations of leaders—that genocide and mass killing are calculated, instrumental, and deliberate policies that leaders choose to accomplish certain goals. ... A key question for Valentino is why leaders would choose the strategy of genocide and mass killing. Valentino argues that ideology, racism, and paranoia can shape why leaders believe that genocide and mass killing is the right course of action."
^Tago & Wayman 2010, p. 5: "Disagreeing with Rummel's finding that authoritarian and totalitarian government explains mass murder, Valentino (2004) argues that regime type does not matter; to Valentino the crucial thing is the motive for mass killing (Valentino, 2004: 70). He divides motive into the two categories of dispossessive mass killing (as in ethnic cleansing, colonial enlargement, or collectivization of agriculture) and coercive mass killing (as in counter-guerrilla, terrorist, and Axis imperialist conquests)."
Bach-Lindsday, Dylan; Huth, Paul; Valentino, Benjamin (May 2004). "Draining the Sea: Mass Killing and Guerrilla Warfare". International Organization. 58 (2). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press: 375–407. doi:10.1017/S0020818304582061. JSTOR3877862. S2CID154296897.
Charny, Israel W., ed. (2000). Encyclopedia of Genocide (1st ed.). Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. ISBN978-0-874-36928-1.
Curthoys, Ann; Docker, John (2008). "Defining Genocide". In Stone, Dan (ed.). The Historiography of Genocide (paperback ed.). Basingstoke, England: Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 7–41. ISBN978-0-230-27955-1.
Dulić, Tomislav (January 2004). "Tito's Slaughterhouse: A Critical Analysis of Rummel's Work on Democide". Journal of Peace Research. 41 (1). Thousands Oaks, California: SAGE Publications: 85‒102. doi:10.1177/0022343304040051. JSTOR4149657. S2CID145120734.
Esteban, Joan Maria; Morelli, Massimo; Rohner, Dominic (May 2010). "Strategic Mass Killings". Working Paper No. 486. Zurich Switzerland: Institute for Empirical Research in Economics, University of Zurich. SSRN1615375.
Gleditish, N. P., ed. (2017). R.J. Rummel: An Assessment of His Many Contributions. SpringerBriefs on Pioneers in Science and Practice. Vol. 37. New York City, New York: Springer. ISBN978-3-319-54463-2.
Gurr, Ted Robert; Harff, Barbara (September 1988). "Toward Empirical Theory of Genocides and Politicides: Identification and Measurement of Cases since 1945". International Studies Quarterly. 32 (3). Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley: 359–371. doi:10.2307/2600447. ISSN0020-8833. JSTOR2600447.
Harff, Barbara (Summer 1996). "Review: Death by Government by R. J. Rummel". The Journal of Interdisciplinary History. 27 (1). Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press: 117–119. doi:10.2307/206491. JSTOR206491.
Harff, Barbara (February 2003). "No Lessons Learned from the Holocaust? Assessing Risks of Genocide and Political Mass Murder since 1955". The American Political Science Review. 97 (1). Washington, D.C.: American Political Science Association: 57–73. doi:10.1017/S0003055403000522. JSTOR3118221. S2CID54804182.
Harff, Barbara (2017). "The Comparative Analysis of Mass Atrocities and Genocide". In Gleditish, N. P. (ed.). R.J. Rummel: An Assessment of His Many Contributions. SpringerBriefs on Pioneers in Science and Practice. Vol. 37. New York City, New York: Springer. pp. 111–129. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-54463-2_12. ISBN978-3-319-54463-2.
Jones, Adam (2010). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction (English paperback 2nd ed.). London, England: Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-48619-4.
Krain, Matthew (June 1997). "State-Sponsored Mass Murder: The Onset and Severity of Genocides and Politicides". Journal of Conflict Resolution. 41 (3). Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications: 331–360. doi:10.1177/0022002797041003001. ISSN0022-0027. JSTOR174282. S2CID143852782.
Mann, Michael (2005). The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing (English paperback ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-53854-1.
Ott, Attiat (2011). "Modeling Mass Killing: For Gain or Ethnic Cleansing?". In Hartley, Keith (ed.). Handbook on the Economics of Conflict. Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 52–79. ISBN978-0-857-93034-7.
Sémelin, Jacques; et al. (Hoffman, Stanley) (2007). Purify and Destroy: The Political Uses of Massacre and Genocide. The CERI Series in Comparative Politics and International Studies. Translated by Schoch, Cynthia. New York City, New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN978-0-231-14282-3.
Staub, Ervin (1989). The Roots of Evil: The Origins of Genocide and Other Group Violence (illustrated, reprinted, revised paperback ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-42214-7.
Staub, Ervin (2011). Overcoming Evil: Genocide, Violent Conflict, and Terrorism (illustrated, reprinted hardback ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-195-38204-4.
Stone, Dan, ed. (2008). The Historiography of Genocide (paperback ed.). Basingstoke, England: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN978-0-230-27955-1.
Straus, Scott (April 2007). "Review: Second-Generation Comparative Research on Genocide". World Politics. 59 (3). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press: 476–501. doi:10.1017/S004388710002089X. JSTOR40060166. S2CID144879341.
Valentino, Benjamin (2004). Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century (hardback ed.). Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. ISBN978-0-801-43965-0. OCLC53013098.
Verdeja, Ernesto (June 2012). "The Political Science of Genocide: Outlines of an Emerging Research Agenda". Perspectives on Politics. 10 (2). Washington, D.C.: American Political Science Association: 307–321. doi:10.1017/S1537592712000680. JSTOR41479553. S2CID145170749.
Weiss-Wendt, Anton (2008). "Problems in Comparative Genocide Scholarship". In Stone, Dan (ed.). The Historiography of Genocide (paperback ed.). Basingstoke, England: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 42–70. doi:10.1057/9780230297784. ISBN978-0-230-27955-1.
Esteban, Joan Maria; Morelli, Massimo; Rohner, Dominic (October 2015). "Strategic Mass Killings". Journal of Political Economy. 123 (5). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press: 1087–1132. doi:10.1086/682584. S2CID154859371.
Schaak, Beth (2007). "The Crime of Political Genocide: Repairing the Genocide Convention's Blind Spot". In Campbell, Tom; Lattimer, Mark (eds.). Genocide and Human Rights (1st eBook ed.). London, England: Routledge. pp. 140–173. doi:10.4324/9781351157568. ISBN978-1-351-15756-8.
Schabas, William A. (2009). Genocide in International Law: The Crime of Crimes (2nd hardcover ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-71900-1.
Sémelin, Jacques; et al. (Hoffman, Stanley) (2007). "The Political Uses of Massacre and Genocide". Purify and Destroy: The Political Uses of Massacre and Genocide. The CERI Series in Comparative Politics and International Studies. Translated by Schoch, Cynthia. New York City, New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 310–361. ISBN978-0-231-14282-3.
Harff, Barbara (2003). "Genocide Politicide". CIDCM. Center for International Development and Conflict Management. Archived from the original on 30 October 2007. Retrieved 27 December 2021.
Rummel, Rudolph (2003) [1997]. Statistic of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900 (hardback ed.). Charlottesville, Virginia: Center for National Security Law, School of Law, University of Virginia; Transaction Publishers, Rutgers University. ISBN978-3-825-84010-5. Archived from the original on 22 December 2021. Retrieved 27 December 2021 – via Power Kills.
Rummel, Rudolph (January 2004). "One-Thirteenth of a Data Point Does Not a Generalization Make: A Response to Dulić*". Journal of Peace Research. 41 (1). Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications: 103–104. CiteSeerX10.1.1.989.5581. doi:10.1177/0022343304040500. S2CID109403016.
Artikel ini tidak memiliki referensi atau sumber tepercaya sehingga isinya tidak bisa dipastikan. Tolong bantu perbaiki artikel ini dengan menambahkan referensi yang layak. Tulisan tanpa sumber dapat dipertanyakan dan dihapus sewaktu-waktu.Cari sumber: Inhibitor neuraminidase – berita · surat kabar · buku · cendekiawan · JSTOR Neuraminidase inhibitor (NAIs) adalah golongan obat yang menghambat enzim neuraminidase. Obat ini biasa digunakan sebagai obat ant…
Bintik-bintik merah pada latar belakang kuning Polkadot (kadang dipadankan dengan istilah Indonesia totol-totol) merupakan corak pola yang terdiri dari susunan lingkaran-lingkaran dalam ukuran dan jarak yang sama satu sama lain. Titik-titik polka paling sering terlihat pada pakaian anak anak, mainan, dan perabot, tetapi mereka muncul dalam berbagai macam ragam corak. Pola corak tersebut jarang muncul dalam konteks formal, tetapi, ia umumnya muncul pada pakaian yang bersifat menyenangkan seperti …
Artikel ini sebatang kara, artinya tidak ada artikel lain yang memiliki pranala balik ke halaman ini.Bantulah menambah pranala ke artikel ini dari artikel yang berhubungan atau coba peralatan pencari pranala.Tag ini diberikan pada Desember 2023. Stephan Hain Informasi pribadiTanggal lahir 27 September 1988 (umur 35)Tempat lahir Zwiesel, Jerman Barat[1]Tinggi 1,80 m (5 ft 11 in)Posisi bermain PenyerangInformasi klubKlub saat ini TSV 1860 MünchenNomor 16Karier junior S…
Artikel ini perlu diwikifikasi agar memenuhi standar kualitas Wikipedia. Anda dapat memberikan bantuan berupa penambahan pranala dalam, atau dengan merapikan tata letak dari artikel ini. Untuk keterangan lebih lanjut, klik [tampil] di bagian kanan. Mengganti markah HTML dengan markah wiki bila dimungkinkan. Tambahkan pranala wiki. Bila dirasa perlu, buatlah pautan ke artikel wiki lainnya dengan cara menambahkan [[ dan ]] pada kata yang bersangkutan (lihat WP:LINK untuk keterangan lebih lanjut). …
Street in Bremen, Germany Helenenstraße Street in Bremen, GermanyHelenenstraße in 2014Former name(s)FrankenstraßeLocationStone Gate district, Bremen, GermanyCoordinates53°04′20″N 8°49′35″E / 53.072222°N 8.826389°E / 53.072222; 8.826389FromVor dem SteintorOtherKnown forProstitution The Helenenstraße is a street in the Steintor locality in the eastern suburbs of Bremen, Germany. The street was built in the 19th century and is known for prostitution. Construc…
Space filling fractal curve A Moore curve (after E. H. Moore) is a continuous fractal space-filling curve which is a variant of the Hilbert curve. Precisely, it is the loop version of the Hilbert curve, and it may be thought as the union of four copies of the Hilbert curves combined in such a way to make the endpoints coincide. Because the Moore curve is plane-filling, its Hausdorff dimension is 2. The following figure shows the initial stages of the Moore curve: Representation as Lindenmayer sy…
Berita Film IndonesiaJenisBUMNIndustriFilmNasibMerger dengan Regerings Film BedrijfPenerusPerusahaan Pilem NegaraDidirikanJakarta, Indonesia (06 Oktober 1945 (1945-10-06))Ditutup1950 (1950)KantorpusatBatavia, Hindia BelandaWilayah operasiIndonesiaTokohkunci RM Soetarto (kepala) Rd Ariffien (kepala) ProdukFilm warta berita dan film dokumenter Berita Film Indonesia (disingkat BFI) merupakan lembaga pembuat film pertama milik Republik Indonesia. BFI didirikan pada 6 Oktober 1945, dengan m…
Ike Gyokuran牡丹に竹図 - Peony dan Bamboo di Batu, Metropolitan Museum of ArtNama asal池玉瀾LahirMachi (町)1727Meninggal1784Tempat tinggalGionNama lainTokuyama GyokuranPekerjaanPelukis, penulis kaligrafi, dan sastrawatiSuami/istriIke no Taiga (m. 1746; meninggal 1776) Ike Gyokuran (池玉瀾code: ja is deprecated , 1727–1784) adalah seorang wanita Jepang yang dikenal dengan karya-karyanya terutama pada kesenian lukisan Bunj…
New England Patriots Musim saat iniDidirikan 1959; 65 tahun lalu (1959)Bermain di Stadion GilletteKantor pusat di Foxborough, Massachusetts New England Patriots logoLogoAfiliasi liga American Football League (1960–69) Eastern Division (1960–69) National Football League (1970–sekarang) American Football Conference (1970–sekarang) AFC East (1970-sekarang) Seragam saat iniWarna timNautical Blue, New Century Silver, Red, White MaskotPat PatriotPersonelPemi…
Piala Dunia HokiOlahragaHoki lapanganDidirikan1971; 53 tahun lalu (1971)Musim awal1971Jumlah tim16BenuaInternasional (FIH)Juaraterkini Belgia (gelar pertama) (2018)Juara terbanyak Pakistan (4 gelar)Situs web resmiwww.fih.ch Piala Dunia Hoki Pria adalah kompetisi hoki lapangan internasional yang diselenggarakan oleh Federasi Hoki Internasional (FIH). Turnamen ini dimulai pada tahun 1971. Ini diadakan setiap empat tahun, menjembatani empat tahun antara Olimpiade Musim Panas. Pakistan adalah t…
Artikel ini sebatang kara, artinya tidak ada artikel lain yang memiliki pranala balik ke halaman ini.Bantulah menambah pranala ke artikel ini dari artikel yang berhubungan atau coba peralatan pencari pranala.Tag ini diberikan pada Desember 2023. René NavarreLahir(1877-06-08)8 Juni 1877Limoges, Haute-Vienne, Republik Ketiga PrancisMeninggal8 Februari 1968(1968-02-08) (umur 90)Azay-sur-Cher, Indre-et-Loire, PrancisPekerjaanPemeranTahun aktif1910–1946 René Navarre (8 Juli 1877…
Kinder JoyKinder Joy di rak-rak toko dengan kemasan Spanyol/PortugalProdusenFerrero SpANegaraItaliaDiluncurkan2001Merek terkaitKinder Chocolate Kinder Surprise Kinder Joy atau Kinder Merendero adalah sejenis permen yang dibuat oleh perusahaan makanan manis Italia, Ferrero sebagai bagian dari merek produknya Kinder. Produk ini memiliki kemasan berbentuk telur plastik yang terbagi menjadi dua, setengah bagian berisi lapisan krim cokelat dan susu dan separuh bagian lainnya berisi mainan. Kinder Joy…
Paavo Väyrynen Menteri Perdagangan Luar Negeri dan Pengembangan InternasionalMasa jabatan19 April 2007 – 22 Juni 2011Perdana MenteriMatti VanhanenMari Kiviniemi PendahuluPaula LehtomäkiPenggantiAlexander Stubb (Perdagangan Luar Negeri)Heidi Hautala (Pengembangan Internasional)Minister of Foreign AffairsMasa jabatan26 April 1991 – 5 Mei 1993Perdana MenteriEsko Aho PendahuluPertti PaasioPenggantiHeikki HaavistoMasa jabatan6 Mei 1983 – 30 April 1987Perdana Menteri…
Infanterie-Regiment „Herwarth von Bittenfeld“ (1. Westfälisches) Nr. 13 Siegelmarke des Regiments Aktiv 1. Juni 1813 bis 1919 Staat Preußen Streitkräfte Preußische Armee Truppengattung Infanterie Unterstellung VII. Armee-Korps Standort Münster Spitzname Dreizehner Das Infanterie-Regiment „Herwarth von Bittenfeld“ (1. Westfälisches) Nr. 13 war ein Infanterieverband der Preußischen Armee. Das Regiment wurde 1813 in Ostpreußen gebildet, dann 1817 in die Provinz Westfalen v…
Pulau OmetepeGeografiLokasiDanau NikaraguaKoordinat11°30′N 85°35′W / 11.500°N 85.583°W / 11.500; -85.583Jumlah pulau1Pulau besar1Luas276 km2Panjang31 kmLebar10 kmTitik tertinggiConcepción (1,610 m)PemerintahanNegaraNikaraguaDepartemenRivas, NicaraguaKota terbesarAltagracia (4,081 jiwa)KependudukanPenduduk29,684 jiwa (Juni 2005)Kepadatan107.6 jiwa/km2 Ometepe adalah sebuah pulau yang terbentuk oleh dua gunung be…
Questa voce sull'argomento fiumi dell'Ontario è solo un abbozzo. Contribuisci a migliorarla secondo le convenzioni di Wikipedia. Questa voce sugli argomenti fiumi degli Stati Uniti d'America e geografia del Michigan è solo un abbozzo. Contribuisci a migliorarla secondo le convenzioni di Wikipedia. Saint ClairNavigazione sul fiumeStato Canada Lunghezza64 km Portata media5 200 m³/s Bacino idrografico576 000 km² NasceLago Huron SfociaLago Saint Clair Mappa del fiume Mod…
Zach GalliganGalligan di Chiller Theatre Expo pada Oktober 2013LahirZachary Wolfe Galligan14 Februari 1964 (umur 60)New York City, New York, Amerika SerikatAlmamaterUniversitas ColumbiaPekerjaanPemeranTahun aktif1982–kini Zachary Wolfe Galligan (lahir 14 Februari 1964) adalah seorang pemeran asal Amerika Serikat. Ia dikenal karena berperan sebagai Billy Peltzer dalam film komedi-horor Gremlins (1984) dan Gremlins 2: The New Batch (1990). Referensi Pranala luar Wikimedia Commons memil…
1990 studio album by SlaughterStick It to YaStudio album by SlaughterReleasedJanuary 23, 1990[1]RecordedMay–June 1989StudioRed Zone Studios, Studio 55 and Pasha Music HouseGenre Glam metal[2][3] Length48:54LabelChrysalisProducer Dana Strum Mark Slaughter Slaughter chronology Stick It to Ya(1990) Stick It Live(1990) Singles from Stick It to Ya Up All NightReleased: April 17, 1990 Fly to the AngelsReleased: July 23, 1990 Spend My LifeReleased: December 4, 1990 Mad…
Artikel ini bukan mengenai Polaroid Corporation. Lexmark International, Inc.JenisPerusahaan publikKode emitenNYSE: LXKS&P 400IndustriSistem manajemen dokumenManajemen konten perusahaanPengelolaan layanan cetakPrinterManajemen pengeluaran perusahaanDidirikan1991KantorpusatLexington, Kentucky, U.SWilayah operasiSeluruh duniaTokohkunciPaul Rooke(Ketua dan CEO)ProdukPrinterManajemen konten perusahaanManajemen proses bisnisPengelolaan layanan cetakTonerTinta PrinterPendapatan US$ 4.200 milyar (20…