The Rust Belt experienced industrial decline starting in the 1950s.[4] The U.S. manufacturing sector as a percentage of the U.S. GDP peaked in 1953 and has been declining since. In the late 20th century, the Rust Belt began experiencing the elimination or outsourcing of manufacturing jobs, which in some cases continues in the 21st century. The region, which previously was the nation's industrial heartland, has experienced economic distress and a resulting decline in population.[5]
In the 20th century, local economies in these states specialized in large-scale manufacturing of finished medium to heavy industrial and consumer products, as well as the transportation and processing of the raw materials required for heavy industry.[8] The area was referred to as the Manufacturing Belt,[9] Factory Belt, or Steel Belt as distinct from the agricultural Midwestern states forming the so-called Corn Belt and Great Plains states that are often called the "breadbasket of America".[10]
The flourishing of industrial manufacturing in the region was caused in part by the proximity to the Great Lakes waterways, and abundance of paved roads, water canals, and railroads. After the transportation infrastructure linked the iron ore found in the so-called Iron Range of northern Minnesota, Wisconsin and Upper Michigan with the coking coal mined from the Appalachian Basin in Western Pennsylvania and Western Virginia, the Steel Belt was born. Soon it developed into the Factory Belt with its manufacturing cities: Chicago, Buffalo, Detroit, Milwaukee, Cincinnati, Toledo, Cleveland, St. Louis, Youngstown, and Pittsburgh, among others. This region for decades served as a magnet for immigrants from Austria-Hungary, Poland and Russia, as well as Yugoslavia, Italy, and the Levant in some areas, who provided the industrial facilities with inexpensive labor.[11] These migrants drawn by labor were also accompanied by African Americans during the Great Migration who were drawn by jobs and better economic opportunity.
Following several "boom" periods from the late-19th to the mid-20th century, cities in this area struggled to adapt to a variety of adverse economic and social conditions. From 1979 to 1982, known as the Volcker shock,[12][13] the US Federal Reserve decided to raise the base interest rate in the United States to 19%. High-interest rates attracted wealthy foreign "hot money" into US banks and caused the US dollar to appreciate. This made US products more expensive for foreigners to buy and also made imports much cheaper for Americans to purchase. The misaligned exchange rate was not rectified until 1986, by which time Japanese imports, in particular, had made rapid inroads into US markets.[14]
From 1987 to 1999, the U.S. stock market went into a stratospheric rise, and this continued to pull wealthy foreign money into U.S. banks, which biased the exchange rate against manufactured goods. Related issues include the decline of the iron and steel industry, the movement of manufacturing to the southeastern states with their lower labor costs,[15] the layoffs due to the rise of automation in industrial processes, the decreased need for labor in making steel products, new organizational methods such as just-in-time manufacturing which allowed factories to maintain production with fewer workers, the internationalization of American business, and the liberalization of foreign trade policies due to globalization.[16] Cities struggling with these conditions shared several difficulties, including population loss, lack of education, declining tax revenues, high unemployment and crime, drugs, swelling welfare rolls, deficit spending, and poor municipal credit ratings.[17][18][19][20][21]
Since the term "Rust Belt" is used to refer to a set of economic and social conditions rather than to an overall geographical region of the United States, the Rust Belt has no precise boundaries. The extent to which a community may have been described as a "Rust Belt city" depends on how great a role industrial manufacturing played in its local economy in the past and how it does now, as well as on perceptions of the economic viability and living standards of the present day.[citation needed]
News media occasionally refer to a patchwork of defunct centers of heavy industry and manufacturing across the Great Lakes and Midwestern United States as the snow belt,[23] the manufacturing belt or the factory belt because of their vibrant industrial economies in the past. This includes most of the cities of the Midwest as far west as the Mississippi River, including St. Louis, and many of those in the Great Lakes and Northern New York.[citation needed] At the center of this expanse lies an area stretching from northern Indiana and southern Michigan in the west to Upstate New York in the east, where local tax revenues as of 2004[update] relied more heavily on manufacturing than on any other sector.[24][25]
Prior to World War II, the cities in the Rust Belt region were among the largest in the United States. However, by the 20th century's end their population had fallen the most in the country.[26]
Coal, iron ore, and other raw materials were shipped in from surrounding regions which emerged as major ports on the Great Lakes and served as transportation hubs for the region with proximity to railroad lines. Coming in the other direction were millions of European immigrants, who populated the cities along the Great Lakes shores with then-unprecedented speed. Chicago was a rural trading post in the 1840s but grew to be as big as Paris by the time of the 1893 Columbian Exposition.[28]
Early signs of the difficulty in the northern states were evident early in the 20th century before the "boom years" were even over. Lowell, Massachusetts, once the center of textile production in the United States, was described in the magazine Harper's as a "depressed industrial desert" as early as 1931,[29] as its textile concerns were being uprooted and sent southward, primarily to the Carolinas.
In the first half of the 20th century, the Great Depression followed by American entry into World War II was followed by a rapid return to economic growth, during which much of the industrial North reached its peak population and industrial output.
The northern cities experienced changes that followed the end of World War II, with the onset of the outward migration of residents to newer suburban communities,[30] and the declining role of manufacturing in the American economy.
Outsourcing of manufacturing jobs in tradeable goods has been an important issue in the region. One source has been globalization and the expansion of worldwide free trade agreements. Anti-globalization groups argue that trade with developing countries has resulted in stiff competition from countries such as China which pegs its currency to the dollar and has much lower prevailing wages, forcing domestic wages to drift downward. Some economists are concerned that long-run effects of high trade deficits and outsourcing are a cause of economic problems in the U.S.[31] with high external debt (amount owed to foreign lenders) and a serious deterioration in the United States net international investment position (NIIP) (−24% of GDP).[27][32][33]
Some economists contend that the U.S. is borrowing to fund consumption of imports while accumulating unsustainable amounts of debt.[27][33] On June 26, 2009, Jeff Immelt, the CEO of General Electric, called for the United States to increase its manufacturing base employment to 20% of the workforce, commenting that the U.S. has outsourced too much in some areas and can no longer rely on the financial sector and consumer spending to drive demand.[34]
Since the 1960s, the expansion of worldwide free trade agreements have been less favorable to U.S. workers. Imported goods such as steel cost much less to produce in Third World countries with cheap foreign labor (see steel crisis). The introduction of pollution regulation in the late 1960's, combined with rapidly increasing US energy costs (see 1970s energy crisis) caused much US heavy industry to begin moving to other countries. Beginning with the recession of 1970–71, a new pattern of deindustrializing economy emerged. Competitive devaluation combined with each successive downturn saw traditional U.S. manufacturing workers experiencing lay-offs. In general, in the Factory Belt employment in the manufacturing sector declined by 32.9% between 1969 and 1996.[35]
Wealth-producing primary and secondary sector jobs such as those in manufacturing and computer software were often replaced by much-lower-paying wealth-consuming jobs such as those in retail and government in the service sector when the economy recovered.[36]
In 1984, an incremental expansion of the U.S. trade deficit with China began combined with growing trade deficits with Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. As a result, the traditional manufacturing workers in the region have experienced economic upheaval. This effect has devastated government budgets across the U.S. and increased corporate borrowing to fund retiree benefits.[32][33] Some economists believe that GDP and employment can be dragged down by large long-run trade deficits.[36]
Outcomes
In 1999, Francis Fukuyama wrote that the social and cultural consequences of deindustrialization and manufacturing decline that turned a former thriving Factory Belt into a Rust Belt as a part of a bigger transitional trend that he called the Great Disruption:[37] "People associate the information age with the advent of the Internet in the 1990s, but the shift from the industrial era started more than a generation earlier, with the deindustrialization of the Rust Belt in the United States and comparable movements away from manufacturing in other industrialized countries. … The decline is readily measurable in statistics on crime, fatherless children, broken trust, reduced opportunities for and outcomes from education, and the like".[38]
Problems associated with the Rust Belt persist even today, particularly around the eastern Great Lakes states, and many once-booming manufacturing metropolises dramatically slowed down.[39] From 1970 to 2006, Cleveland, Detroit, Buffalo, and Pittsburgh lost about 45% of their population and median household incomes fell: in Cleveland and Detroit by about 30%, in Buffalo by 20%, and Pittsburgh by 10%.[40]
During the mid-1990s, several Rust Belt metropolitan areas experienced a suspension in negative growth, indicated by stabilizing unemployment, wages, and populations.[41] During the first decade of the 21st century, however, a negative trend still persisted: Detroit, Michigan lost 25.7% of its population; Gary, Indiana, 22%; Youngstown, Ohio, 18.9%; Flint, Michigan, 18.7%; and Cleveland, Ohio, 14.5%.[42]
In the late 2000s, American manufacturing recovered faster from the Great Recession of 2008 than the other sectors of the economy,[44] and a number of initiatives, both public and private, are encouraging the development of alternative fuel, nano and other technologies.[45]
Along with the neighboring Golden Horseshoe of southern Ontario, the Rust Belt composes one of the world's major manufacturing regions.[46][47]
Transformation
Delving into the past and musing on the future of Rust Belt states, a 2010 Brookings Institution report suggests that the Great Lakes region has a sizable potential for transformation, citing already existing global trade networks, clean energy/low carbon capacity, developed innovation infrastructure and higher educational network.[48]
Different strategies were proposed in order to reverse the fortunes of the former Factory Belt including building casinos and convention centers, retaining the creative class through arts and downtown renewal, encouraging the knowledge economy type of entrepreneurship, and other steps. This includes growing new industrial base with a pool of skilled labor, rebuilding the infrastructure and infrasystems, creating research and development-focused university-business partnerships, and close cooperation between central, state and local government, and business.[49]
New types of research and development-intensive nontraditional manufacturing have emerged recently in Rust Belt, including biotechnology, the polymer industry, infotech, and nanotech. Information technology is seen as representing an opportunity for the Rust Belt's revitalization.[50] Among the successful recent examples is the Detroit Aircraft Corporation, which specializes in unmanned aerial systems integration, testing and aerial cinematography services.[51]
In Pittsburgh, robotics research centers and companies such as National Robotics Engineering Center and Robotics Institute, Aethon Inc., American Robot Corporation, Automatika, Quantapoint, Blue Belt Technologies and Seegrid are creating state-of-the-art robotic technology applications. Akron, a former "Rubber Capital of the World" that lost 35,000 jobs after major tire and rubber manufacturers Goodrich, Firestone and General Tire closed their production lines, is now again well known around the world as a center of polymer research with four hundred polymer-related manufacturing and distribution companies operating in the area. The turnaround was accomplished in part by a partnership between The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company, which chose to stay, the University of Akron, and the city mayor's office. The Akron Global Business Accelerator that jump-started a score of successful business ventures in Akron resides in the refurbished B.F. Goodrich tire factory.[52]
In 2013, The Economist reported a growing trend of reshoring, or inshoring, of manufacturing when a growing number of American companies were moving their production facilities from overseas back home.[54] Rust Belt states can ultimately benefit from this process of international insourcing.
There have also been attempts to reinvent properties in the Rust Belt in order to reverse its economic decline. Buildings with compartmentalization unsuitable for today's uses were acquired and renewed to facilitate new businesses. These business activities suggest that the revival is taking place in the once-stagnant area.[55] The CHIPS and Science Act, which became effective in August 2022, was designed to rebuild the manufacturing sector with thousands of jobs and research programs in states like Ohio focusing on making products like semiconductors due to the global chip shortage of the early 2020s.[56]
In popular culture
The Rust Belt is depicted in various films, television shows, and songs. It is the subject of the popular Billy Joel song, "Allentown," originally released on The Nylon Curtain album in 1982. The song uses Allentown as a metaphor for the resilience of working-class Americans in distressed industrial cities during the recession of the early 1980s.
The 21st century evolution of this region of the United States is also depicted through the fictional town of New Canaan, Ohio, in Stephen Markley's 2018 bestseller novel, Ohio. The town is described through both the teenage glamour of high school lens in the early 2000s and the harsh reality lens of what the town became 10 years later.
^David Koistinen, Confronting Decline: The Political Economy of Deindustrialization in Twentieth-Century New England (2013)
^Teaford, Jon C. Cities of the Heartland: The Rise and Fall of the Industrial Midwest. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993.
^Meyer, David R. 1989. "Midwestern Industrialization and the American Manufacturing Belt in the Nineteenth Century." Journal of Economic History 49(4):921–937.
^High, Steven C. Industrial Sunset: The Making of North America's Rust Belt, 1969–1984. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2003.
^Jargowsky, Paul A. Poverty and Place: Ghettos, Barrios, and the American City. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1997.
^Hagedorn, John M., and Perry Macon. People and Folks: Gangs, Crime and the Underclass in a Rustbelt City. Lake View Press, Chicago, IL, (paperback: ISBN0-941702-21-9; clothbound: ISBN0-941702-20-0), 1988.
^"Rust Belt Woes: Steel out, drugs in," The Northwest Florida Daily News, January 16, 2008. PDFArchived April 6, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
^Beeson, Patricia E. "Sources of the decline of manufacturing in large metropolitan areas." Journal of Urban Economics 28, no. 1 (1990): 71–86.
^Higgins, James Jeffrey. Images of the Rust Belt. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1999.
^"Sun On The Snow Belt (editorial)". Chicago Tribune. August 25, 1985. Retrieved September 22, 2011. The Northern states, once the foundry of the nation, are known now as the Rust Belt or the Snow Belt, in invidious comparison to the supposedly booming Sun Belt.
^ abKunstler, James Howard (1996). Home From Nowhere: Remaking Our Everyday World for the 21st Century. New York: Touchstone/Simon and Schuster. ISBN978-0-684-83737-6.
^Hira, Ron, and Anil Hira with foreword by Lou Dobbs, (May 2005). Outsourcing America: What's Behind Our National Crisis and How We Can Reclaim American Jobs. (AMACOM) American Management Association. Citing Paul Craig Roberts, Paul Samuelson, and Lou Dobbs, pp. 36–38.
^ abcPhillips, Kevin (2007). Bad Money: Reckless Finance, Failed Politics, and the Global Crisis of American Capitalism. Penguin. ISBN978-0-14-314328-4.
Cooke, Philip. The Rise of the Rustbelt. London: UCL Press, 1995. ISBN0-203-13454-0
Coppola, Alessandro. Apocalypse town: cronache dalla fine della civiltà urbana. Roma: Laterza, 2012. ISBN9788842098409
Denison, Daniel R., and Stuart L. Hart. Revival in the rust belt. Ann Arbor, Mich: University of Michigan Press, 1987. ISBN0-87944-322-7
Engerman, Stanley L., and Robert E. Gallman. The Cambridge Economic History of the United States: The Twentieth Century. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
Hagedorn, John, and Perry Macon. People and Folks: Gangs, Crime, and the Underclass in a Rust-Belt City. Chicago: Lake View Press, 1988. ISBN0-941702-21-9
High, Steven C. Industrial Sunset: The Making of North America's Rust Belt, 1969–1984. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2003. ISBN0-8020-8528-8
Higgins, James Jeffrey. Images of the Rust Belt. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1999. ISBN0-87338-626-4
Lopez, Steven Henry. Reorganizing the Rust Belt: An Inside Study of the American Labor Movement. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. ISBN0-520-23565-7
Preston, Richard. American Steel. New York: Avon Books, 1992. ISBN0-13-029604-X
Rotella, Carlo. Good with Their Hands: Boxers, Bluesmen, and Other Characters from the Rust Belt. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002. ISBN0-520-22562-7
Teaford, Jon C.Cities of the Heartland: The Rise and Fall of the Industrial Midwest. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993. ISBN0-253-35786-1
Warren, Kenneth. The American Steel Industry, 1850–1970: A Geographical Interpretation. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973. ISBN0-8229-3597-X
Winant, Gabriel. The Next Shift: The Fall of Industry and the Rise of Health Care in Rust Belt America (Harvard University Press, 2021), focus on Pittsburgh
Amazing Stories, primera revista estadounidense de ciencia ficción. Ciencia ficción es la denominación de uno de los géneros derivados de la literatura de ficción, junto con la literatura fantástica y la narrativa de terror. Algunos autores estiman que el término es una mala traducción del inglés science fiction y que la correcta es ficción científica.[1] Nacida como género en la década de 1920 (aunque hay obras reconocibles muy anteriores) y exportada posterio…
Toyota Hilux2016 Toyota Hilux Invincible (GUN125R)InformasiProdusenToyota Motor CorporationToyota Motor Argentina S.A.Toyota Motor Thailand Co., Ltd. Hino MotorNUMMI (1991-1995: North America)Juga disebutToyota PickupToyota TacomaMasa produksi1968–sekarangKronologiPendahuluToyopet Light(Stout)Toyota / Hino BriskaPenerusTacoma (Jepang dan Amerika Utara) Toyota Hilux adalah mobil pikap yang diproduksi oleh pabrikan otomotif Toyota. Nama Toyota Hilux digunakan untuk mengganti nama Toyota Sto…
Kyai Haji Zainudin FananieLahir23 Desember 1908GontorMeninggal21 Juli 1967JakartaDikenal atasTrimuti Pendiri Pondok Modern Darussalam Gontor PonorogoPenggantiKH Shoiman Luqmanul Hakim Dr. KH Abdullah Syukri Zarkasyi, M.A KH Hasan Abdullah Sahal Drs. KH Imam Badri KH Syamsul Hadi Abdan, S.AgAnakDrs. H. Rusydi Bey FananieSitus webwww.gontor.ac.id KH. Zainudin Fananie (23 Desember 1908 – 21 Juli 1967) adalah Trimurti Pendiri Pondok Modern Darussalam Gontor Ponorogo bersama 2 orang l…
In matematica, i numeri di Perrin sono definiti dalla relazione di ricorrenza P ( 0 ) = 3 , P ( 1 ) = 0 , P ( 2 ) = 2 {\displaystyle P(0)=3,\,P(1)=0,\,P(2)=2} , e P ( n ) = P ( n − 2 ) + P ( n − 3 ) {\displaystyle P(n)=P(n-2)+P(n-3)} per n > 2 {\displaystyle n>2} . La sequenza dei numeri di Perrin inizia con 3, 0, 2, 3, 2, 5, 5, 7, 10, 12, 17, 22, 29, 39 ...[1] Il numero dei diversi insiemi indipendenti massimali in un grafo ciclo con n {\displaystyle n} vertici è co…
Artikel ini sebatang kara, artinya tidak ada artikel lain yang memiliki pranala balik ke halaman ini.Bantulah menambah pranala ke artikel ini dari artikel yang berhubungan atau coba peralatan pencari pranala.Tag ini diberikan pada Oktober 2022. Menyarikan secangkir doppio Doppio adalah istilah umum dalam dunia perkopian untuk menyebut dua seloki espreso. Doppio umumnya dihasilkan menggunakan double coffee filter dalam portafilter. Satu dopio biasanya berukuran 60 ml, dua kali lipat dari satu sel…
Население Украины Численность 41,130,432 (2022)[1] чел Плотность 61 чел/км² Рождаемость 8,6 ‰ Смертность 15,2 ‰ Коэффициент рождаемости 1,30 Коэффициент миграции −5,4 ‰ Возрастная структура до 14 лет 15,4 % 15–64 года 68,4 % старше 65 лет 16,2 % Половая структура при рожде…
Взаимоотношение клиновидной пазухи и полости носа. Клиновидная (основная) пазуха (лат. sinus sphenoidalis) — околоносовая пазуха, расположенная в теле клиновидной кости. Наряду с задними ячейками решетчатого лабиринта, клиновидная пазуха относится к задним околоносовым паз…
Samarra terletak 125 km di sebelah utara Bagdad Sāmarrā (سامراء) adalah sebuah kota kecil yang terletak di sisi timur Sungai Tigris di Provinsi Salah ad Din, Irak. Terletak pada koordinat 34°11′N 43°52′E / 34.183°N 43.867°E / 34.183; 43.867, kota ini berlokasi 125 km di sebelah utara Bagdad. Penduduknya berjumlah 201.700 jiwa (2002). Pada masa lampau, Samarra merupakan salah satu kota terbesar Mesopotamia. Meskipun kota ini termasuk tempat suci bagi kaum S…
CompletoSebuah roti lapis completo italianoTempat asalChiliBahan utamaRoti, sosis, tomat, alpukat, mayones, sauerkrautVariasiBeragamSunting kotak info • L • BBantuan penggunaan templat ini Media: Completo Completo (bahasa Spanyol dari kata komplit atau lengkap) adalah varian hot dog yang biasa dimakan di Chili, biasanya disajikan dengan bahan-bahan seperti potongan tomat, alpukat, mayones, sauerkraut,[1] sauce Américaine, cabai khas dari Chili, saus hijau, dan ke…
Gereja Injili Karo Indonesia (GIKI)Logo GIKIPenggolonganInjiliPemimpinKetua Umum: Pdt. Drs. Edi Suranta Ginting, M. Div., M.Th.WilayahIndonesiaDidirikan27 Juni 1992 Kabanjahe, Kabupaten Karo, Sumatera Utara IndonesiaTerpisah dariGereja Kristen Kudus Indonesia (GKKI) Gereja Injili Karo Indonesia atau disingkat GIKI, merupakan sebuah komunitas Kristen beraliran injili/evangelikalisme di Indonesia yang tumbuh dan berkembang di tengah-tengah masyarakat Suku Karo, atau dengan kata lain, gereja yang p…
Jang PertamaAlbum studio karya Dara PuspitaDirilis1966[1]GenrePop, rockDurasi32:51LabelMesraKronologi Dara Puspita Jang Pertama(1966) Dara Puspita(1966)Dara Puspita1966 Jang Pertama adalah album perdana dari grup musik Dara Puspita yang dirilis pada tahun 1966 di bawah label Mesra. Album Jang Pertama ditempatkan pada peringkat ke-20 dalam daftar 150 Album Indonesia Terbaik versi majalah Rolling Stone Indonesia yang diterbitkan pada edisi #32 bulan Desember 2007.[2] Dua lagu d…
Canadian politician Chad CollinsMPCollins in 2019Member of Parliamentfor Hamilton East—Stoney CreekIncumbentAssumed office 20 September 2021 (2021-09-20)Preceded byBob BratinaHamilton City CouncillorIn office1995 – 25 September 2021Preceded byDominic AgostinoSucceeded byRuss PowersConstituencyWard 5 Personal detailsBornJanuary 1971Hamilton, Ontario, CanadaPolitical partyLiberalParentShirley CollinsResidence(s)Hamilton, OntarioAlma materUniversity of Western Ontari…
Katedral GuadixKatedral InkarnasiSpanyol: Catedral de la Encarnación de Guadixcode: es is deprecated Katedral Guadix37°18′04″N 3°08′11″W / 37.3012°N 3.1363°W / 37.3012; -3.1363Koordinat: 37°18′04″N 3°08′11″W / 37.3012°N 3.1363°W / 37.3012; -3.1363LokasiGuadixNegara SpanyolDenominasiGereja Katolik RomaArsitekturStatusKatedralStatus fungsionalAktifArsitekDiego de Siloé, Francisco Roldán, Francisco Antero, Blas Antonio …
Nama ini menggunakan cara penamaan Portugis. Nama keluarga pertama atau maternalnya adalah dos Santos Gato Alves dan nama keluarga kedua atau paternalnya adalah Dias. Rúben Dias Informasi pribadiNama lengkap Rúben dos Santos Gato Alves Dias[1]Tanggal lahir 14 Mei 1997 (umur 26)[2]Tempat lahir Amadora, PortugalTinggi 187 cm (6 ft 2 in)[3]Posisi bermain Bek tengah[4]Informasi klubKlub saat ini Manchester CityNomor 3Karier junior2006–2008 …
Wilayah Hulu Sungai warna biru tua yang sekarang terdiri dari enam kabupaten yang disebut Banua Enam. Afdeeling Hoeloe Soengai (1930)[1] /Hoeloe Soengei Ken Riken (1942)[2]/Kabupaten Hulu Sungai (1950) adalah bekas afdeling pada masa pemerintahan Hindia Belanda/Jepang dengan wilayah di sepanjang daerah aliran sungai (DAS) Negara (sungai Bahan) di provinsi Kalimantan Selatan.[3][4] Pada Bulan April 1950 DR Murdjani diangkat sebagai Gubernur Kalimantan. Kemuadian ka…
Regio-Shuttle, kereta rel berlantai rendah produksi Jerman yang banyak dipakai negara itu. Kereta rel adalah alat transportasi rel yang bergerak dengan traksi/daya sendiri dan digunakan untuk mengangkut orang/penumpang. Kereta rel tidak memerlukan penarik (lokomotif) untuk bergerak. Di kedua moncongnya terdapat ruang pengendali untuk masinis. Daya diperoleh dari diesel atau listrik. Dalam arti aslinya, kereta rel tidak berangkai (tunggal). Istilah dalam bahasa Inggris adalah railcar atau railmot…
Stumpf (kiri depan) dengan siswa lain dari Moody Bible Institute, Kijabe, 1917. Hulda Jane Stumpf (10 Januari 1867 – 3 Januari 1930) adalah seorang misionaris Kristen Amerika Serikat yang dibunuh di rumahnya, di dekat pusat pelayanan misi Kristen Africa Inland Mission di Kijabe, Kenya, tempat ia bekerja sebagai sekretaris dan administrator.[1] Tahun-tahun awal dan pendidikan Surat Stumpf tanggal 24 Oktober 1906 kepada Africa Inland Mission. Stumpf dilahirkan di Big Run, Pennsylvania, a…
Gao Junyu Gao Junyu (Hanzi: 高君宇) (22 Oktober 1896 – 5 Maret 1925) adalah seorang anggota Komite Eksekutif Pusat Partai Komunis Tiongkok ke-2. Lahir di Kabupaten Jingle, Provinsi Shanxi, ia masuk Universitas Peking pada 1916 dan ikut serta dalam Gerakan 4 Mei 1919. Ia menghadiri kongres Partai Komunis Tiongkok ke-2 dari 1922 sampai 1923. Pada 1924, ia mendampingi Sun Yat-sen ke Guangzhou, dimana ia bekerja sebagai sekretaris Sun. Tak lama usai pulang ke Beijing dengan Su…
Amber Fort, di Amber, ibu kota dari Raja Bhagwant Das Maharaja Bhagawant Das (Rajasthani: राजा भगवंत दास) (27 Januari 1574 – 10 Desember 1589[1]) adalah pemimpin Kacchwaha dari Amber. Ia adalah salah satu keturunan dari Jai Singh II pendiri dari Jaipur. Kehidupan Ia adalah putra tertua dari Raja Ankitmal atau Bharmal dan menggantikannya setelah kematiannya. Raja Bhagwant adalah saudara tertua dari permaisuri Akbar Mariam-uz-Zamani atau yang dikenal…