Pinker is the Johnstone Family Professor of Psychology at Harvard University. He specializes in visual cognition and developmental linguistics, and his experimental topics include mental imagery, shape recognition, visual attention, regularity and irregularity in language, the neural basis of words and grammar, and childhood language development. Other experimental topics he works on are the psychology of cooperation and of communication, including emotional expression, euphemism, innuendo, and how people use "common knowledge", a term of art meaning the shared understanding in which two or more people know something, know that the other one knows, know the other one knows that they know, and so on.[8]
Pinker has written two technical books that proposed a general theory of language acquisition and applied it to children's learning of verbs. In particular, his work with Alan Prince published in 1989 critiqued the connectionist model of how children acquire the past tense of English verbs, positing that children use default rules, such as adding -ed to make regular forms, sometimes in error, but are obliged to learn irregular forms one by one.
Pinker is the author of nine books for general audiences. The Language Instinct (1994), How the Mind Works (1997), Words and Rules (2000), The Blank Slate (2002), and The Stuff of Thought (2007) describe aspects of psycholinguistics and cognitive science, and include accounts of his own research, positing that language is an innate behavior shaped by natural selection and adapted to our communication needs. Pinker's The Sense of Style (2014) is a general language-oriented style guide.[9] Pinker's book The Better Angels of Our Nature (2011) posits that violence in human societies has generally declined over time, and identifies six major trends and five historical forces of this decline, the most important being the humanitarian revolution brought by the Enlightenment and its associated cultivation of reason. Enlightenment Now (2018) further argues that the human condition has generally improved over recent history because of reason, science, and humanism. The nature and importance of reason is also discussed in his next book Rationality: What It Is, Why It Seems Scarce, Why It Matters (2021).
Pinker was born in Montreal, Quebec, in 1954, to a middle-class secular Jewish family in an English-speaking community.[19][20][21] His grandparents immigrated to Canada from Poland and Romania in 1926,[22][23] and owned a small necktie factory in Montreal.[24] His father, Harry, worked in real estate and was a lawyer. His mother, Roslyn, was originally a homemaker, but later became a guidance counsellor and a high-school vice-principal. In an interview, Pinker described his mother as "very intellectual" and "an intense reader [who] knows everything". His brother, Robert, worked for the Canadian government for several decades as an administrator and a policy analyst, while his sister, Susan Pinker, is a psychologist and writer who authored The Sexual Paradox and The Village Effect. Susan is also a columnist for The Wall Street Journal.[21][25][26]
From 1982 until 2003 Pinker taught at the Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences at MIT, was the co-director of the Center for Cognitive Science (1985–1994), and eventually became the director of the Center for Cognitive Neuroscience (1994–1999),[28] taking a one-year sabbatical at the University of California, Santa Barbara, in 1995–96. Since 2003 he has been serving as the Johnstone Family Professor of Psychology at Harvard and between 2008 and 2013 he also held the title of Harvard College Professor in recognition of his dedication to teaching.[29] He currently gives lectures as a visiting professor at the New College of the Humanities, a private college in London.[30][31]
Pinker married Nancy Etcoff in 1980 and they divorced in 1992; he married again in 1995 and again divorced.[32] His third wife, whom he married in 2007, is the novelist and philosopher Rebecca Goldstein.[33] He has two stepdaughters, the novelist Yael Goldstein Love and the poet Danielle Blau. Pinker adopted atheism at 13, but at various times was a serious "cultural Jew."[34][35] Pinker is an avid cyclist.[36]
Linguistic career
Pinker's research on visual cognition, begun in collaboration with his thesis adviser, Stephen Kosslyn, showed that mental images represent scenes and objects as they appear from a specific vantage point (rather than capturing their intrinsic three-dimensional structure), and thus correspond to the neuroscientist David Marr's theory of a "two-and-a-half-dimensional sketch."[37] He also showed that this level of representation is used in visual attention, and in object recognition (at least for asymmetrical shapes), contrary to Marr's theory that recognition uses viewpoint-independent representations.
In psycholinguistics, Pinker became known early in his career for promoting computational learning theory as a way to understand language acquisition in children. He wrote a tutorial review of the field followed by two books that advanced his own theory of language acquisition, and a series of experiments on how children acquire the passive, dative, and locative constructions. These books were Language Learnability and Language Development (1984), in Pinker's words "outlin[ing] a theory of how children acquire the words and grammatical structures of their mother tongue",[38] and Learnability and Cognition: The Acquisition of Argument Structure (1989), in Pinker's words "focus[ing] on one aspect of this process, the ability to use different kinds of verbs in appropriate sentences, such as intransitive verbs, transitive verbs, and verbs taking different combinations of complements and indirect objects".[38] He then focused on verbs of two kinds that illustrate what he considers to be the processes required for human language: retrieving whole words from memory, like the past form of the irregular verb[39] "bring", namely "brought"; and using rules to combine (parts of) words, like the past form of the regular verb "walk", namely "walked".[38]
In 1988 Pinker and Alan Prince published a critique of a connectionist model of the acquisition of the past tense (a textbook problem in language acquisition), followed by a series of studies of how people use and acquire the past tense. This included a monograph on children's regularization of irregular forms and his popular 1999 book, Words and Rules: The Ingredients of Language. Pinker argued that language depends on two things: the associative remembering of sounds and their meanings in words, and the use of rules to manipulate symbols for grammar. He presented evidence against connectionism, where a child would have to learn all forms of all words and would simply retrieve each needed form from memory, in favour of the older alternative theory, the use of words and rules combined by generative phonology. He showed that mistakes made by children indicate the use of default rules to add suffixes such as "-ed": for instance 'breaked' and 'comed' for 'broke' and 'came'. He argued that this shows that irregular verb-forms in English have to be learnt and retrieved from memory individually, and that the children making these errors were predicting the regular "-ed" ending in an open-ended way by applying a mental rule. This rule for combining verb stems and the usual suffix can be expressed as[40] Vpast → Vstem + d, where V is a verb and d is the regular ending. Pinker further argued that since the ten most frequently occurring English verbs (be, have, do, say, make ... ) are all irregular, while 98.2% of the thousand least common verbs are regular, there is a "massive correlation" of frequency and irregularity. He explains this by arguing that every irregular form, such as 'took', 'came' and 'got', has to be committed to memory by the children in each generation, or else lost, and that the common forms are the most easily memorized. Any irregular verb that falls in popularity past a certain point is lost, and all future generations will treat it as a regular verb instead.[40]
In 1990 Pinker, with Paul Bloom, published a paper arguing that the human language faculty must have evolved through natural selection.[41] The article provided arguments for a continuity-based view of language evolution, contrary to then-current discontinuity-based theories that see language as suddenly appearing with the advent of Homo sapiens as a kind of evolutionary accident. This discontinuity-based view was prominently argued by two main authorities, linguist Noam Chomsky and Stephen Jay Gould.[42] The paper became widely cited and created renewed interest in the evolutionary prehistory of language, and has been credited with shifting the central question of the debate from "did language evolve?" to "how did language evolve?"[42][43] The article also presaged Pinker's argument in The Language Instinct.
In 2006 Pinker provided to Alan Dershowitz, a personal friend of Pinker's who was Jeffrey Epstein's defense attorney, Pinker's own interpretation of the wording of a federal law pertaining to the enticement of minors into illegal sex acts via the internet. Dershowitz included Pinker's opinion in a letter to the court during proceedings that resulted in a plea deal in which all federal sex trafficking charges against Epstein were dropped.[44] In 2019, Pinker stated that he was unaware of the nature of the charges against Epstein, and that he engaged in an unpaid favor for his Harvard colleague Dershowitz, as he had regularly done. He stated in an interview with BuzzFeed News that he regrets writing the letter.[44] Pinker says he never received money from Epstein and met with him three times over more than a dozen years,[45] and said he could never stand Epstein and tried to keep his distance.[44]
Pinker's 1994 The Language Instinct was the first of several books to combine cognitive science with behavioral genetics and evolutionary psychology. It introduces the science of language and popularizes Noam Chomsky's theory that language is an innate faculty of mind, with the controversial twist that the faculty for language evolved by natural selection as an adaptation for communication. Pinker criticizes several widely held ideas about language – that it needs to be taught, that people's grammar is poor and getting worse with new ways of speaking, the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis that language limits the kinds of thoughts a person can have, and that other great apes can learn languages. Pinker sees language as unique to humans, evolved to solve the specific problem of communication among social hunter-gatherers. He argues that it is as much an instinct as specialized adaptative behavior in other species, such as a spider's web-weaving or a beaver's dam-building.
Pinker states in his introduction that his ideas are "deeply influenced"[46] by Chomsky; he also lists scientists whom Chomsky influenced to "open up whole new areas of language study, from child development and speech perception to neurology and genetics"[46] – Eric Lenneberg, George Miller, Roger Brown, Morris Halle and Alvin Liberman.[46] Brown mentored Pinker through his thesis; Pinker stated that Brown's "funny and instructive"[47] book Words and Things (1958) was one of the inspirations for The Language Instinct.[47][48]
There has been debate about the explanatory adequacy of the theory. By 2015, the nativist views of Pinker and Chomsky had a number of challenges on the grounds that they had incorrect core assumptions and were inconsistent with research evidence from psycholinguistics and child language acquisition.[49] The reality of Pinker's proposed language instinct, and the related claim that grammar is innate and genetically based, has been contested by linguists such as Geoffrey Sampson in his 1997 book, Educating Eve: The 'Language Instinct' Debate.[50][51] Sampson argues that "while it may seem attractive to argue the nature side of the 'nature versus nurture' debate, the nurture side may better support the creativity and nobility of the human mind." Sampson denies there is a language instinct, and argues that children can learn language because people can learn anything.[51] Others have sought a middle ground between Pinker's nativism and Sampson's culturalism.[52]
The assumptions underlying the nativist view have also been questioned in Jeffrey Elman's Rethinking Innateness: A Connectionist Perspective on Development, which defends the connectionist approach that Pinker attacked. In his 1996 book Impossible Minds, the machine intelligence researcher Igor Aleksander calls The Language Instinct excellent, and argues that Pinker presents a relatively soft claim for innatism, accompanied by a strong dislike of the 'Standard Social Sciences Model' or SSSM (Pinker's term), which supposes that development is purely dependent on culture. Further, Aleksander writes that while Pinker criticises some attempts to explain language processing with neural nets, Pinker later makes use of a neural net to create past tense verb forms correctly. Aleksander concludes that while he doesn't support the SSSM, "a cultural repository of language just seems the easy trick for an efficient evolutionary system armed with an iconic state machine to play."[53]
Two other books, How the Mind Works (1997) and The Blank Slate (2002), broadly surveyed the mind and defended the idea of a complex human nature with many mental faculties that are genetically adaptive (Pinker is an ally of Daniel Dennett and Richard Dawkins in many disputes surrounding adaptationism). Another major theme in Pinker's theories is that human cognition works, in part, by combinatorial symbol-manipulation, not just associations among sensory features, as in many connectionist models. On the debate around The Blank Slate, Pinker called Thomas Sowell's book A Conflict of Visions "wonderful",[54] and explained that "The Tragic Vision" and the "Utopian Vision" are the views of human nature behind right- and left-wing ideologies.[54]
In Words and Rules: the Ingredients of Language (1999), Pinker argues from his own research that regular and irregular phenomena are products of computation and memory lookup, respectively, and that language can be understood as an interaction between the two.[55] "Words and Rules" is also the title of an essay by Pinker outlining many of the topics discussed in the book.[40] Critiqueing the book from the perspective of generative linguisticsCharles Yang, in the London Review of Books, writes that "this book never runs low on hubris or hyperbole".[56] The book's topic, the English past tense, is in Yang's view unglamorous, and Pinker's attempts at compromise risk being in no man's land between rival theories. Giving the example of German, Yang argues that irregular nouns in that language at least all belong to classes, governed by rules, and that things get even worse in languages that attach prefixes and suffixes to make up long 'words': they can't be learnt individually, as there are untold numbers of combinations. "All Pinker (and the connectionists) are doing is turning over the rocks at the base of the intellectual landslide caused by the Chomskian revolution."[56]
In The Stuff of Thought (2007), Pinker looks at a wide range of issues around the way words related to thoughts on the one hand, and to the world outside ourselves on the other. Given his evolutionary perspective, a central question is how an intelligent mind capable of abstract thought evolved: how a mind adapted to Stone Age life could work in the modern world. Many quirks of language are the result.[57]
Pinker is critical of theories about the evolutionary origins of language that argue that linguistic cognition might have evolved from earlier musical cognition. He sees language as being tied primarily to the capacity for logical reasoning, and speculates that human proclivity for music may be a spandrel – a feature not adaptive in its own right, but that has persisted through other traits that are more broadly practical, and thus selected for. In How the Mind Works, Pinker reiterates Immanuel Kant's view that music is not in itself an important cognitive phenomenon, but that it happens to stimulate important auditory and spatio-motor cognitive functions. Pinker compares music to "auditory cheesecake", stating that "As far as biological cause and effect is concerned, music is useless". This argument has been rejected by Daniel Levitin and Joseph Carroll, experts in music cognition, who argue that music has had an important role in the evolution of human cognition.[58][59][60][61][62][63] In his book This Is Your Brain On Music, Levitin argues that music could provide adaptive advantage through sexual selection, social bonding, and cognitive development; he questions the assumption that music is the antecedent to language, as opposed to its progenitor, noting that many species display music-like habits that could be seen as precursors to human music.[64]
Pinker has also been critical of "whole language" reading instruction techniques, stating in How the Mind Works, "...the dominant technique, called 'whole language,' the insight that [spoken] language is a naturally developing human instinct has been garbled into the evolutionarily improbable claim that reading is a naturally developing human instinct."[65] In the appendix to the 2007 reprinted edition of The Language Instinct, Pinker cited Why Our Children Can't Read by cognitive psychologist Diane McGuinness as his favorite book on the subject and noted:
One raging public debate involving language went unmentioned in The Language Instinct: the "reading wars," or dispute over whether children should be explicitly taught to read by decoding the sounds of words from their spelling (loosely known as "phonics") or whether they can develop it instinctively by being immersed in a text-rich environment (often called "whole language"). I tipped my hand in the paragraph in [the sixth chapter of the book] which said that language is an instinct but reading is not.[66] Like most psycholinguists (but apparently unlike many school boards), I think it's essential for children to be taught to become aware of speech sounds and how they are coded in strings of letters.[67]
In The Better Angels of Our Nature, published in 2011, Pinker argues that violence, including tribal warfare, homicide, cruel punishments, child abuse, animal cruelty, domestic violence, lynching, pogroms, and international and civil wars, has decreased over multiple scales of time and magnitude. Pinker considers it unlikely that human nature has changed. In his view, it is more likely that human nature comprises inclinations toward violence and those that counteract them, the "better angels of our nature". He outlines several "major historical declines of violence" that all have their own social/cultural/economic causes.[69]
Response to the book was divided. Many critics found its arguments convincing and its synthesis of a large volume of historical evidence compelling.[70][71][72] This and other aspects drew criticism, including the use of deaths per capita as a metric, Pinker's liberal humanism, the focus on Europe, the interpretation of historical data, and its image of indigenous people.[73][74][75][76] Archaeologist David Wengrow summarized Pinker's approach to archaeological science as "a modern psychologist making it up as he goes along".[77]
Pinker identifies as a liberal,[79] who is critical of some aspects of the far-left.[80] He supports same-sex marriage, a universal basic income, the legalization of drugs, the taxation of carbon, and the abolition of capital punishment.[81] Pinker is a strong supporter of the Democratic Party.[82] However, Pinker has argued that the far-left has created an atmosphere of intellectual intolerance on college campuses and elsewhere, and helped form the Council on Academic Freedom at Harvard to combat what he described as an epidemic of censorship at universities.[83] He was a signatory of the Letter on Justice and Open Debate which argued that discussion of political issues was being silenced by a widespread "intolerance of opposing views, a vogue for public shaming and ostracism, and a tendency to dissolve complex issues into a binding moral certainty."[84]
Pinker is a frequent participant in public debates surrounding the contributions of science to contemporary society. Social commentators such as Ed West, author of The Diversity Illusion, consider Pinker important and daring in his willingness to confront taboos, as in The Blank Slate. According to West, the doctrine of tabula rasa remained accepted "as fact, rather than fantasy"[86] a decade after the book's publication. West describes Pinker as "no polemicist, and he leaves readers to draw their own conclusions".[86]
In January 2005 Pinker defended comments by then-President of Harvard University Lawrence Summers. Summers had speculated that in addition to differing societal demands and discrimination, "different availability of aptitude at the high end" may contribute to gender gaps in mathematics and science.[87][88][89] In a debate between Pinker and Elizabeth Spelke on gender and science, Pinker argued in favor of the proposition that the gender difference in representation in elite universities was "explainable by some combination of biological differences in average temperaments and talents interacting with socialization and bias".[90]
In January 2009 Pinker wrote an article about the Personal Genome Project and its possible impact on the understanding of human nature in The New York Times.[91] He discussed the new developments in epigenetics and gene-environment interactions in the afterword to the 2016 edition of his book The Blank Slate.[92] Pinker has been criticised for using the data of scientific racists (on subjects unrelated to race), such as the blogger Steven Sailer, with journalist Angela Saini stating that "for many people, Pinker's willingness to entertain the work of individuals who are on the far right and white supremacists has gone beyond the pale". Pinker has stated that he condemns racism.[93]
In a November 2009 article for The New York Times, Pinker wrote a mixed review of Malcolm Gladwell's essays, criticizing his analytical methods.[94] Gladwell replied, disputing Pinker's comments about the importance of IQ on teaching performance and by analogy the effect, if any, of draft order on quarterback performance in the National Football League.[95]Advanced NFL Stats addressed the issue statistically, siding with Pinker and showing that differences in methodology could explain the two men's differing opinions.[96]
In an appearance for BBC World Service's Exchanges At The Frontier programme, an audience member questioned whether the virtuous developments in culture and human nature (documented in The Better Angels of Our Nature) could have expressed in our biology either through genetic or epigenetic expression. Pinker responded that it was unlikely since "some of the declines have occurred far too rapidly for them to be explicable by biological evolution, which has a speed limit measured in generations, but crime can plummet in a span of 15 years and some of these humanitarian reforms like eliminating slavery and torture occurred in, say, 50 years".[97] Helga Vierich and Cathryn Townsend wrote a critical review of Pinker's sweeping "civilizational" explanations for patterns of human violence and warfare in response to a lecture he gave at Cambridge University in September 2015.[98]
In his 2018 book Enlightenment Now, Pinker posited that Enlightenment rationality should be defended against attacks from both the political left and political right.[99] In a debate with Pinker, post-colonial theorist Homi Bhabha said that Enlightenment philosophy had immoral consequences such as inequality, slavery, imperialism, world wars, and genocide, and that Pinker downplayed them. Pinker argued that Bhabha had perceived the causal relationship between Enlightenment thinking and these sources of suffering "backwards", responding in part that "The natural state of humanity, at least since the dawn of civilization, is poverty, disease, ignorance, exploitation, and violence (including slavery and imperial conquest). It is knowledge, mobilised to improve human welfare, that allows anyone to rise above this state."[100] In a 2019 story in Current Affairs, proprietor Nathan Robinson criticised Pinker, saying that he misrepresents his critics' arguments against his work.[101]
In 2020, an open letter to the Linguistic Society of America requesting the removal of Pinker from its list of LSA Fellows and its list of media experts was signed by hundreds of academics.[102][103] The letter accused Pinker of a "pattern of drowning out the voices of people suffering from racist and sexist violence, in particular in the immediate aftermath of violent acts and/or protests against the systems that created them", citing as examples six of Pinker's tweets.[104] Pinker said in reply that through this letter, he, and more importantly, younger academics with less protection, were being threatened by "a regime of intimidation that constricts the theatre of ideas."[104][105][106][107][108] Several academics criticized the letter and expressed support for Pinker.[102] The executive committee of the Linguistic Society of America declined to strike Pinker from its lists and issued a response letter stating that "It is not the mission of the Society to control the opinions of its members, nor their expression."[109]
Awards and distinctions
Pinker was named one of Time's 100 most influential people in the world in 2004[110] and one of Prospect and Foreign Policy's 100 top public intellectuals in both years the poll was carried out, 2005[111] and 2008;[112] in 2010 and 2011 he was named by Foreign Policy to its list of top global thinkers.[113][114] In 2016, he was elected to the National Academy of Sciences.[115]
From 2008 to 2018, Pinker chaired the Usage Panel of the American Heritage Dictionary.[119] He wrote the essay on usage for the fifth edition of the Dictionary, published in 2011. In February 2001, Pinker, "whose hair has long been the object of admiration, and envy, and intense study",[120] was nominated by acclamation as the first member of the Luxuriant Flowing Hair Club for Scientists (LFHCfS) organized by the Annals of Improbable Research.
^Shermer, Michael (March 1, 2001). The Pinker Instinct. Altadena, CA: Skeptics Society & Skeptic Magazine. Archived from the original on October 10, 2008. Retrieved September 11, 2007.
^Pinker has written a piece on The Irregular VerbsArchived June 6, 2014, at the Wayback Machine, stating that "I like the Irregular verbs of English, all 180 of them, because of what they tell us about the history of the language and the human minds that have perpetuated it.
^Kagan, Jerome (1999). "Roger William Brown 1925–1997"(PDF). Biographical Memoirs. 77: 7. Archived(PDF) from the original on May 18, 2015. Retrieved May 17, 2014.
^* Fernald, Anne; Marchman, Virginia A. (2006). "27: Language learning in infancy". In Traxler and Gernsbacher (ed.). Handbook of Psycholinguistics. Academic Press. pp. 1027–1071. ISBN9780080466415., quote p. 1030: "Some critiques directly challenge the logic of arguments made by Chomsky, Pinker, and like-minded theorists, questioning such core assumptions as the universality of generative grammar, the autonomy of syntax in language processing, and the fundamental unlearnability of language (e.g., Bates & Goodman, 1999; Braine, 1994; Pullum & Scholz, 2002; Tomasello, 1995). Other critiques focus on empirical evidence inconsistent with particular nativist assertions. For example, the claim that negative evidence is not available when children make grammatical errors, an assumption central to the "poverty of the stimulus" argument at the heart of Chomsky’s theory, is not supported by a recent analysis of parents’ reformulations in speech to children (Chouinard & Clark, 2003). These diverse challenges, both philosophical and data-driven, have fueled debate over four decades about the explanatory adequacy of nativist theories of language learning." * de Bot, Kees (2015). A History of Applied Linguistics: From 1980 to the Present. Routledge. ISBN9781138820654., quote pp. 58–60: "GG is generally seen as a declining paradigm and its proponents now tend to stay away from conferences like AAAL (the American Association of Applied Linguistics) and University of Boston Child Language Development conferences, as a cursory count of papers on the basis of abstracts shows [...] In the psycholinguistic community, the idea of innateness and a Language Acquisition Device (LAD) were seen as problematic [...] Now that generation of GG linguists is retiring and there is a tendency in many universities not to replace them with younger scholars of that school, but rather appoint UB oriented linguists. There is almost a euphoria that the grip of the nativists on what constitutes linguistics is gone and that other approaches and more social orientations are seen as meaningful alternatives. Others try to explain the reasons for the decline of GG [...] Some informants are quite outspoken about the role of GG in AL. William Grabe states: "Fundamentally Chomsky is wrong and we wasted a lot of time. In 1964 Chomsky’s Aspects was published. Now, in 2014, we are 50 years later. What impact has all of that had in real world language use? This is an overstated theoretical direction." Jan Hulstijn summarizes: "Generative linguistics has had no noticeable (or durable) impact.""
^Cowley, S. J. (2001). "The baby, the bathwater and the 'language instinct' debate". Language Sciences. 23 (1): 69–91. doi:10.1016/s0388-0001(00)00017-6.
^Aleksander, Igor (1996). Impossible Minds. Imperial College Press. pp. 228–234. ISBN1-86094-030-7.
^Cross, I. (1999). Is music the most important thing we ever did? Music, development and evolution. [preprint (html)] [preprint (pdf)] In Suk Won Yi (Ed.), Music, mind and science (pp 10–39), Seoul: Seoul National University Press.
^Pinker, Steven (January 11, 2009). "My Genome, My Self". The New York Times. Archived from the original on March 10, 2017. Retrieved February 25, 2017.
^"Does the Enlightenment Need Defending?". IAI TV – Philosophy for our times: cutting edge debates and talks from the world's leading thinkers. September 13, 2018. Archived from the original on December 5, 2018. Retrieved December 4, 2018.
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Dave Mackay Mackay pada 2006Informasi pribadiNama lengkap David Craig MackayTanggal lahir (1934-11-14)14 November 1934Tempat lahir Edinburgh, SkotlandiaTanggal meninggal 2 Maret 2015(2015-03-02) (umur 80)Tempat meninggal Nottingham, InggrisTinggi 1,72 m (5 ft 7+1⁄2 in)Posisi bermain BekKarier senior*Tahun Tim Tampil (Gol)1953–1959 Heart of Midlothian 135 (25)1959–1968 Tottenham Hotspur 268 (42)1968–1971 Derby County 122 (5)1971–1972 Swindon Town 26 (1)Total 601 …
Hilda Cathy Heine Presiden Kepulauan MarshallPetahanaMulai menjabat 28 Januari 2016 PendahuluCasten NemraPenggantiPetahana Informasi pribadiLahir6 April 1951 (umur 72)Atol Jaluit, Kepulauan MarshallPartai politikIndependenSuami/istriThomas KijinerAnak4Alma materUniversitas OregonUniversity of Hawaii, ManoaUniversity of SouthernCaliforniaSunting kotak info • L • B Hilda Cathy Heine (lahir 6 April 1951) adalah seorang politikus asal Atol Jaluit, Kepulauan Marshall, yang terp…
Benjamin Trinidad RomualdezMantan Gubernur dan Duta Besar Benjamin Kokoy Romualdez pada hari ulang tahunnya yang ke-81 Gubernur LeyteMasa jabatan30 Desember 1967 – 25 Maret 1986 Informasi pribadiLahir(1930-09-24)24 September 1930[1]Manila, Kepulauan FilipinaMeninggal21 Februari 2012(2012-02-21) (umur 81)Makati, FilipinaPartai politikKilusang Bagong Lipunan (1978–1986) Nacionalista (1967–1978)Suami/istriJuliette GomezAnakDaniel Romualdez II Benjamin Romualdez, Jr. Ferd…
Five Nights at Freddy's (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack)Musik film karya the Newton BrothersDirilis27 Oktober 2023Direkam2023GenreSkor filmDurasi50:02LabelBack Lot MusicProduserThe Newton BrothersKronologi The Newton Brothers Goosebumps(2023) Five Nights at Freddy's(2023) X-Men '97(2024) Five Nights at Freddy's (Lagu Tema Film Original) adalah album lagu tema film tahun 2023 Five Nights at Freddy's berdasarkan franchise video game dengan nama yang sama yang dibuat oleh Scott Cawthon. Sou…
Choe Chi-wonPortret Choe ChiwonNama KoreaHangul최치원 Hanja崔致遠 Alih AksaraChoe ChiwonMcCune–ReischauerCh'oe Ch'i-wŏnNama penaHangul해운, 고운 Hanja海雲, 孤雲 Alih AksaraHae(-)un, GounMcCune–ReischauerHae(-)un, Koun Choe Chi-won (857-abad ke-10) merupakan pejabat Konfusianisme terkemuka, filsuf, dan pujangga bekas Silla Bersatu periode (668-935). Ia belajar selama bertahun-tahun di Tang Cina, lulus dari Tang ujian negara, dan naik pangkat ke posisi pejabat tinggi di sana seb…
Firman Dwi Cahyono Komandan Pangkalan Udara IswahyudiPetahanaMulai menjabat 2 Oktober 2023 PendahuluWastumPenggantiPetahanaKepala Pusat Kerjasama Internasional TNIMasa jabatan29 Maret 2023 – 2 Oktober 2023 PendahuluBambang DarmawanPenggantiBenny Arfan Informasi pribadiLahir30 Maret 1974 (umur 49)Surabaya, Jawa TimurKebangsaanIndonesiaAlma mater1. SMA Taruna Nusantara (1993)2. Akademi Angkatan Udara (1996)Penghargaan sipil1. Lulusan Terbaik SMA Taruna Nusantara2. 2000 Jam Terb…
Gerardus GulUskup Agung Katolik Lama UtrechtGerejaGereja Katolik LamaKeuskupan agungUtrechtMasa jabatan1875–1892PendahuluJohannes HeykampPenerusFranciscus KenninckImamatTahbisan imam1870Tahbisan uskup11 Mei 1892oleh Casparus Johannes RinkelInformasi pribadiLahir(1847-10-27)27 Oktober 1847Egmond aan ZeeWafat9 Februari 1920(1920-02-09) (umur 72)UtrechtKewarganegaraanBelandaDenominasiKatolik LamaOrang tuaJan Gul, Angel Tol Gerardus Gul (27 Oktober 1847 – 9 Februari 1920)…
Kawasaki Ki-60 adalah pesawat tempur eksperimental Jepang Perang Dunia II yang menggunakan mesin (Kawasaki) DB 601 liquid-cooled lisensi-dibangun. Ini pada waktu itu pilihan yang tidak biasa karena mayoritas pesawat Jepang pada saat itu digunakan engines radial berpendingin udara. Ki-60 dirancang oleh Takeo Doi dan wakilnya Shin Owada dari Kawasaki Aircraft Industries (川崎航空機工業株式会社 Kawasaki Kōkūki Kōgyō K.K.?) dalam menanggapi kebutuhan Angkatan Darat Kekaisaran Jepang A…
Dalam aljabar abstrak, homomorfisme atau kehomomorfan (Inggris: Homomorphismcode: en is deprecated ) adalah struktur peta yang menghubungkan dua struktur aljabar. Setiap homomorfisme pasti dapat ditentukan kanelnya, dan kanel pasti subgrup normal, sehingga selalu dapat dibentuk grup faktor, selanjutnya akan dibentuk pengkaitan baru dari ranah homomorfisme ke grup faktor yang dibentuknya, sehingga terbentuklah homomorfisme baru yang disebut homomorfisma natural. Definisi Homomorfisme adalah peta …
Anastasio Somoza GarcíaNama dalam bahasa asli(es) Anastasio Somoza García BiografiKelahiran1r Februari 1896 San Marcos (en) Kematian29 September 1956 (60 tahun)Ancón, Panama (en) Penyebab kematianLuka tembak Tempat pemakamanManagua Presiden Nikaragua 7 Mei 1950 – 29 September 1956 21è Presiden Nikaragua 1r Januari 1937 – 1r Mei 1947 ← Carlos Alberto Brenes (en) – Leonardo Argüello Barreto (en) → Data pribadiPendidikanPei…
Grigory KiriyenkoInformasi pribadiLahir29 September 1965 (umur 58)Moskwa, SFSR Rusia, Uni Soviet OlahragaOlahragaAnggar Rekam medali Anggar putra Olimpiade Mewakili Tim Gabungan 1992 Barcelona Tim sabel Mewakili Rusia 1996 Atlanta Tim sabel Grigory Anatolyevich Kiriyenko (Rusia: Григорий Анатольевич Кириенкоcode: ru is deprecated ) (lahir 29 September 1965 di Novosibirsk) adalah seorang atlet anggar asal Rusia. Ia memenangkan dua medali Oimpiade emas d…