原始犹他-阿兹特克语

原始犹他－阿兹特克语
原始犹他－阿兹特克语
PUA
重建自	犹他－阿兹特克语系
區域	中美洲北端
時代	3000 BC
下層重建	原始纳瓦语;

原始犹他－阿兹特克语是犹他－阿兹特克语系的祖语。学界一般认为犹他－阿兹特克语系原乡在美墨边境地区，具体点说是在亚利桑那州和新墨西哥州的高地地区，以及相邻的墨西哥索诺拉省和奇瓦瓦省，大致对应索诺拉沙漠和奇瓦瓦沙漠西部。可能在约5000年前由中美洲北端的中石器时代的狩猎采集部落使用。

原乡

构拟出的植物词汇能提供一些原始犹他－阿兹特克语的生态环境。Fowler将原始犹他－阿兹特克语定在亚利桑那中部，北部方言在内华达和莫哈韦沙漠，南部方言向南跨过泰皮曼走廊进入墨西哥。^[1]努米语族的原乡曾被认为在加州南部的死亡谷附近，南犹他－阿兹特克语族的原乡则在索诺拉省沿海。^[2]^:137

一个相反的假说认为原始犹他－阿兹特克语的原乡在远得多的南方，在2001年首先由简·希尔提出，证据是她构拟出的原始犹他－阿兹特克语的一些与玉米有关的词汇。她的理论认为，假定的原始犹他－阿兹特克语使用者是中美洲玉米农民，逐渐向北迁徙途中也将玉米农业带走，时间大约在4500到3000年前。使用者地理分布的割裂对应语言联合体的破裂。^[3]^[4]这个理论漏洞百出，犹他-阿兹特克语系研究者们没有广泛接受它。^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8]^[9]^:346-350通过计算机系统发育学，Wheeler & Whiteley (2014)^[10]^:113–125的研究也支持原始犹他－阿兹特克语的南方原乡，在历史上克拉族和部分纳瓦族占据的区域内或周边。纳瓦特尔语形成了Wheeler & Whiteley (2014)的犹他-阿兹特克语系系统发生树的基干部分。Merrill (2012)的农业相关词汇研究发现农业词汇只能构拟进南犹他－阿兹特克语族。这说明原始犹他－阿兹特克语社区尚未发展出农业，从北部进入中美洲后才发展出来。^[11]

2014年David L. Shaul的更近的假说提供了支持原始犹他－阿兹特克语和加利福尼亚中部语言，如艾索伦语和约库赞语支间接触的证据。这使得Shaul认为原始犹他－阿兹特克语曾分布在加利福尼亚中央谷地，是古加利福尼亚语言联盟的一部分。^[12]

音系

元音

原始犹他－阿兹特克语的元音不同寻常：*i *a *u *o *ɨ。Langacker (1970)证明第5个元音应该被拟作*ɨ，而不是*e，针对它的构拟存在长期争议。^[13]^[14]^[2]^:136

辅音

	唇音	舌冠音	硬颚音	软腭音	唇化软腭音	声门音
塞音	*p	*t		*k	*kʷ	*ʔ
塞擦音		*ts
擦音		*s				*h
鼻音	*m	*n		*ŋ
R音		*r
半元音			*j		*w

*n和*ŋ可能实际上分别是*l和*n。

词汇

下面是部分Stubbs (2011)的原始犹他－阿兹特克词汇。^[15]

缩写

NUA=北犹他－阿兹特克语族
SUA=南犹他－阿兹特克语族

词义	原始犹他－阿兹特克语
箭	huc(a) > huC
乳房	*piCti(C)
兀鹫、红头美洲鹫	*wiLhukuN
爪	siCtuN / suCtuN
烤	kwasïC / kwasaC
蟋蟀	*tukaw-capaLa
耳	nakka / naNkapa (< *na(N)kasapa ?)
目	*pusi
给	*makaC
手、臂	man > ma
头	mo’o；ku / *ku’o
心	suna > SUA suLa
重	pïttï / pïttiya / pïttV’a
脚踝	tanapiCko / tamukpi’-(ko)
角	awaC / a’awaC
屋、家	kanni (NUA) / kaLi (SUA); *ki
丈夫	kuNa / kumCa / *kuCma
肝	nïmaC / nïmaN
肺	somCo / soNCa > *soŋo
月	mïcaC (< mancaL ?)
母亲	yï’ï / yïC / yïk; ya...
口	tï’na > tï’ni; tï’nV-pa > tï’n-pa > *tïmpa
肚脐	sikuN / sikʷuL
脖	kuta / kuLa
不，非	ka / kay
鼻	yakaC / ya’ka; mupiC / mukpiC
棉尾兔	tapuC / taput
彩虹	*ko(C)-samaLo
路	poC / po’ï / *powï
石	tïmï-ta > tïN-(pV)
腐烂、脓、感染	piska / pisVka
盐	omCa / oNCa > oŋa
臭鼬	huppa; po(C)ni
天	NUA tukuN(-pa) > SUA* *tVkpa
睡	ïppïwi / ïCpïCi / pïwi; koci
雪	kïpa; nïpa
夏	taCcaC < tattaC / *taCcaC
日，一天	*ta-
尾	*kwasi
舌	Laŋu; akoN
齿	tamaC / tamaN / *taman
尿	si’i / si’a
水	pa / pa’wi
什么	han-ta / hiCta / *hin-ta
何时	*ha-na-’oko
谁	haka / haki
风、吹	hïka / hïkawa / *hïkwa
冬	tommo / toCmo
狼	*cï’ï
1	sïma’ / sïmï’; *sïnu
2	wakay / wokay
3	*pakay

参考

^ Fowler 1983.
^ ^2.0 ^2.1 Campbell 1997.
^ Hill 2001，[1].
^ Hill 2010，[2].
^ Kemp et al. 2010，[3].
^ Merrill et al. 2010，[4].
^ Brown 2010，[5].
^ Campbell 2003.
^ Campbell & Poser 2008.
^ Wheeler, W. C.; Whiteley, P. M. Historical linguistics as a sequence optimization problem: the evolution and biogeography of Uto‐Aztecan languages (PDF). Cladistics. 2014, 31 (2) [2021-08-20]. doi:10.1111/cla.12078. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-08-25）.
^ Merrill 2012.
^ Shaul 2014.
^ Langacker 1970，[6].
^ Dakin 1996，[7].
^ Stubbs, Brian D. 2011. Uto-Aztecan: A comparative vocabulary. Flower Mound, Texas: Shumway Family History Services.

资料

Brown, Cecil H. Lack of linguistic support for Proto-Uto-Aztecan at 8900 BP (letter). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2010, 107 (15): E34; author reply E35–6. PMC 2841887 . PMID 20231478. doi:10.1073/pnas.0914859107.
Caballero, G. Behind the Mexican Mountains: Recent Developments and New Directions in Research on Uto‐Aztecan Languages. Language and Linguistics Compass. 2011, 5 (7). doi:10.1111/j.1749-818x.2011.00287.x. ^:485–504
Campbell, Lyle. American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. Oxford University Press. 1997.
Campbell, Lyle. What drives linguistic diversification and language spread?. Bellwood, Peter; Renfrew, Colin (编). Examining the farming/language dispersal hypothesis. Cambridge(U.K.): McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research. 2003. ^:49–63
Campbell, Lyle; Poser, William J. Language classification, history and method. Cambridge University Press. 2008.
Cortina-Borja, M; Valiñas-Coalla, L. Some remarks on Uto-Aztecan Classification.. International Journal of American Linguistics. 1989, 55 (2). doi:10.1086/466114. ^:214–239
Cortina-Borja, M.; Stuart-Smith, J.; Valiñas-Coalla, L. Multivariate classification methods for lexical and phonological dissimilarities and their application to the Uto-Aztecan family. Journal of Quantitative Linguistics. 2002, 9 (2). doi:10.1076/jqul.9.2.97.8485. ^:97–124
Dakin, Karen. Long vowels and morpheme boundaries in Nahuatl and Uto-Aztecan: comments on historical developments (PDF). Amerindia. 1996, 21 [2021-08-20]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2018-11-13）.
Fowler, Catherine S. Some lexical clues to Uto-Aztecan prehistory. International Journal of American Linguistics. 1983, 49 (3). doi:10.1086/465789. ^:224–257
Goddard, Ives. Introduction. Goddard, Ives (编). Handbook of North American Indians 17. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. 1996. ^:1–16
Haugen, J. D. Morphology at the interfaces: reduplication and noun incorporation in Uto-Aztecan. Vol. 117. John Benjamins Publishing. 2008.
Heath, J. Uto-Aztecan* na-class verbs. International Journal of American Linguistics. 1978, 44 (3). doi:10.1086/465546. ^:211–222
Hill, Jane H. Proto-Uto-Aztecan. American Anthropologist. New Series. December 2001, 103 (4). JSTOR 684121. doi:10.1525/aa.2001.103.4.913. ^:913–934
Hill, Jane H. New evidence for a Mesoamerican homeland for Proto-Uto-Aztecan. PNAS. 2010, 107 (11): E33; author reply E35–6. Bibcode:2010PNAS..107E..33H. PMC 2841890 . PMID 20231477. doi:10.1073/pnas.0914473107.
Hill, J. H. Subgrouping in Uto-Aztecan. Language Dynamics and Change. Language Dynamics and Change. 2011, 1 (2): 241–278. doi:10.1163/221058212x643978.
Iannucci, David. Numic historical phonology. Cornell University PhD dissertation. 1972.
Kaufman, Terrence. Nawa linguistic prehistory. Mesoamerican Language Documentation Project. 2001 [2021-08-20]. （原始内容存档于2016-03-03）.
Kaufman, Terrence. Lyle Campbell , 编. Comparative Uto-Aztecan Phonology. Unpublished manuscript. 1981.
Kemp; González-Oliver; Malhi; Monroe; Schroeder; McDonough; Rhett; Resendéz; Peñalosa-Espinoza; Buentello-Malo; Gorodetsky; Smith. Evaluating the farming/language dispersal hypothesis with genetic variation exhibited by populations in the Southwest and Mesoamerica. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2010, 107 (15): 6759–6764. Bibcode:2010PNAS..107.6759K. PMC 2872417 . PMID 20351276. doi:10.1073/pnas.0905753107.
Kroeber, Alfred Louis. Shoshonean dialects of California. The University Press. 1907 [24 August 2012].
Kroeber, Alfred Louis. Uto-Aztecan Languages of Mexico 8. University of California Press. 1934.
Langacker, Ronald W. The Vowels of Proto Uto-Aztecan. International Journal of American Linguistics. 1970, 36 (3): 169–180. doi:10.1086/465108.
Langacker, R. W. An overview of Uto-Aztecan grammar. Summer Institute of Linguistics. 1977.
Langacker, R. W. Non-distinct arguments in Uto-Aztecan. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1976.
Manaster Ramer, Alexis. A Northern Uto-Aztecan Sound Law: *-c- → -y-¹. International Journal of American Linguistics. 1992, 58 (3): 251–268. JSTOR 3519784. doi:10.1086/ijal.58.3.3519784.
Merrill, William L.; Hard, Robert J.; Mabry, Jonathan B.; Fritz; Adams; Roney; MacWilliams. Reply to Hill and Brown: Maize and Uto-Aztecan cultural history. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2010, 107 (11). Bibcode:2010PNAS..107E..35M. PMC 2841871 . doi:10.1073/pnas.1000923107. ^:E35–E36
Merrill, W. The genetic unity of southern Uto-Aztecan. Language Dynamics and Change. 2013, 3. doi:10.1163/22105832-13030102. ^:68–104
Merrill, William L. The Historical Linguistics of Uto-Aztecan Agriculture. Anthropological Linguistics. 2012, 54 (3). doi:10.1353/anl.2012.0017. ^:203–260
Miller, Wick R. Numic Languages. Warren L. d’Azevedo (编). Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 11, Great Basin. Washington: Smithsonian Institution. 1986. ^:98–106
Miller, Wick R. A note on extinct languages of northwest Mexico of supposed Uto-Aztecan affiliation.. International Journal of American Linguistics. 1983, 49 (3). doi:10.1086/465793. ^:328–333
Miller, Wick R. Uto-Aztecan languages. Ortiz, Alfonso (编). Handbook of North American Indians 10. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. 1983. ^:113–124
Miller, Wick R. The classification of the Uto-Aztecan languages based on lexical evidence.. International Journal of American Linguistics. 1984, 50 (1). doi:10.1086/465813. ^:1–24
Mithun, Marianne. The languages of Native America. Cambridge University Press. 1999.
Sapir, E. Southern Paiute and Nahuatl, a study in Uto-Aztekan. Journal de la Société des Américanistes. 1913, 10 (2). doi:10.3406/jsa.1913.2866. ^:379–425
Shaul, David L. A Prehistory of Western North America: The Impact of Uto-Aztecan Languages. University of New Mexico Press. 2014.
Shaul, David L.; Hill, Jane H. Tepimans, Yumans, and other Hohokam. American Antiquity. 1998, 63 (3). JSTOR 2694626. doi:10.2307/2694626. ^:375–396
Steele, Susan. Uto-Aztecan: An assessment for historical and comparative linguistics. Campbell, Lyle; Mithun, Marianne (编). The Languages of Native America: Historical and Comparative Assessment. Austin: University of Texas Press. 1979. ^:444–544
Voegelin, C. F.; Voegelin, F.; Hale, K. Typological and Comparative Grammar of Uto-Aztecan: Phonology. Memoirs of the International Journal of American Linguistics 17. Waverly Press. 1962.
Whorf, B. L. The Comparative Linguistics of Uto-Aztecan. American Anthropologist. 1935, 37 (4): 600–608. doi:10.1525/aa.1935.37.4.02a00050 .

[FOOTNOTEFowler1983-1] Fowler 1983.

[FOOTNOTECampbell1997-2] 2.0 ^2.1 Campbell 1997.

[FOOTNOTEHill2001[httpswwwjstororgpss684121-3] Hill 2001，[1].

[FOOTNOTEHill2010[httpwwwpnasorgcontent10711E33fullpdfhtml-4] Hill 2010，[2].

[FOOTNOTEKempGonzález-OliverMalhiMonroe2010[httpwwwpnasorgcontent107156759fullpdfhtml-5] Kemp et al. 2010，[3].

[FOOTNOTEMerrillHardMabryFritz2010[httpwwwpnasorgcontent10711E35fullpdfhtml-6] Merrill et al. 2010，[4].

[FOOTNOTEBrown2010[httpwwwpnasorgcontent10711E34fullpdfhtml-7] Brown 2010，[5].

[FOOTNOTECampbell2003-8] Campbell 2003.

[FOOTNOTECampbellPoser2008-9] Campbell & Poser 2008.

[10] Wheeler, W. C.; Whiteley, P. M. Historical linguistics as a sequence optimization problem: the evolution and biogeography of Uto‐Aztecan languages (PDF). Cladistics. 2014, 31 (2) [2021-08-20]. doi:10.1111/cla.12078. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-08-25）.

[FOOTNOTEMerrill2012-11] Merrill 2012.

[FOOTNOTEShaul2014-12] Shaul 2014.

[FOOTNOTELangacker1970[httpswwwjstororgsicisici0020-707128197007293633C169TVOPU3E20CO2-Z-13] Langacker 1970，[6].

[FOOTNOTEDakin1996[httpceliacnrsfrFichExtAmA_21_04htm-14] Dakin 1996，[7].

[15] Stubbs, Brian D. 2011. Uto-Aztecan: A comparative vocabulary. Flower Mound, Texas: Shumway Family History Services.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

原始犹他-阿兹特克语

原乡

音系

元音

辅音

词汇

参考

资料

Portal di Ensiklopedia Dunia