而在當代,則常用“傳統主義”和“現代主義”來做區分。以熱心倡導群島伊斯蘭的公民組織伊斯蘭教士聯合會(NU)所代表的是傳統主義,這是一個根據印尼文化(英语:Culture of Indonesia),經歷過互動、語境化、本土化、解讀和通俗化,而形成獨特的伊斯蘭教模式。[23]他們擁抱群島伊斯蘭,提倡溫和主義(英语:Moderate Islam)、熱情、反激進主義、包容和寬厚。[24]另一方面是現代主義,這派人深受伊斯蘭現代主義的啟發,民間社會組織穆罕馬迪亞是知名的熱切支持者。[25]現代主義穆斯林倡導印尼的伊斯蘭改革,而印尼當前做法被認為是偏離伊斯蘭史上正統觀念。他們強調古蘭經和聖訓的權威,反對綜攝和反對對烏理瑪的塔格利德(對教導不合情理的依循)。但根據最近的分析,這種劃分也被認為過於簡單化。[22]自1990年代以來,穆罕馬迪亞已朝著更薩拉菲運動的方向發展。薩拉菲運動是遜尼派的一個改革派分支,呼籲根據第一代穆斯林去理解古蘭經和聖訓,避免後來引入其他事物進入信仰,這種思潮已在印尼社會中開始擴展。[26]
NU是最大的穆希林傳統主義組織,專注於社會、宗教和教育等眾多活動,並間接經營該國大部分的伊斯蘭寄宿學校。NU聲稱擁有4,000至6,000萬追隨者,是該國最大的公民組織,也許是世界上最大的伊斯蘭組織。[46][47][48]NU成立於1926年,會員遍及全國,在爪哇農村地區尤為強大。在政治層面,NU、馬斯友美黨(Masyumi)和另外兩個政黨共同在1973年被迫組成一個單一的伊斯蘭政黨 - 聯合發展黨(英语:United Development Party)(PPP)。[20]這種變化可能削弱NU成為政治實體的能力,譬如NU已退出積極的政治競爭,但NU仍是個受歡迎的宗教力量,具有良好組織狀況和構建全國辯論議題的能力。[20]
伊斯蘭教的改革主義思想和當地人日益增長的主權意識相結合,導致這種宗教成為反對荷蘭殖民主義的政治鬥爭工具,伊斯蘭教獲得短暫的發展。最早的例子是發生在米南加保的帕德里戰爭(英语:Padri War)(另稱米南加保戰爭)。帕德里戰爭在其開始時受到瓦哈比主義啟發,目的在淨化印尼的伊斯蘭教。在這次戰爭(1803年-1837年)期間,這種運動最終變成為反對荷蘭殖民主義的鬥爭,但與此同時,這場戰爭也與半世俗的阿達特米南加保貴族和傳統酋長的部落作戰。[72]其中一位伊斯蘭教領導人 伊瑪目·朋佐爾被追贈為印度尼西亞民族英雄。[73][74] In the early 20th century, Sarekat Islam was developed as the first mass nationalist organization against colonialism.[75]在20世紀初,當地的伊斯蘭聯盟(Sarekat Islam)發展成為首個反對殖民主義的群眾民族主義組織,將其作為群島中廣泛多樣的族群和文化的共同身份,特別用來對抗被認為是敵人的基督教徒統治者。像Jamiat Kheir(英语:Jamiat Kheir)等教育機構也支持這種趨勢。伊斯蘭教在此過程裡賦予參與者認同感,而有助於印尼民族主義的滋長。在此情況下,早期印尼民族主義者渴望將自己呈現為烏瑪(全球伊斯蘭社群)的一份子。他們還對伊斯蘭議題,例如重建哈里發國和泛伊斯蘭主義等運動產生興趣。荷蘭殖民政府基於上述的原因,把伊斯蘭教視為潛在威脅,並特別對從中東返回印尼的朝聖者和學生抱持懷疑的態度。[22]一個類似伊斯蘭民族主義組織印尼穆斯林聯盟(英语:Persatuan Muslim Indonesia)(PERMI)遭到荷蘭殖民政府的嚴厲鎮壓,成員(包括拉蘇娜·薩伊德(英语:Rasuna Said)女士)遭到逮捕。[76]
亞齊特區是印尼唯一實施伊斯蘭教法的省份。負責起草和執行伊斯蘭教法的宗教領袖表示,他們沒計劃對違反伊斯蘭教法的行為實施刑事制裁。他們說,亞齊的伊斯蘭法律不會嚴格執行伊斯蘭教法學或伊斯蘭刑事法(英语:hudud),而是將傳統的亞齊伊斯蘭教(英语:Islam in Aceh)習俗和價值觀(例如紀律、誠實和適當的行為)編入法典。他們聲稱執法將不由警察決定,而是取決於公眾教育和社會共識。
因為穆斯林占亞齊人口的絕大多數,公眾接受的伊斯蘭教法在大多數情況下只是正規化的一般社會習俗。例如亞齊的大多數女性在公共場合會披上希賈布。省和地區政府設立伊斯蘭教法局來處理有關新制度的公眾教育,當地的伊斯蘭領導人,特別是在北亞齊縣(英语:North Aceh Regency)和皮迪縣(英语:Pidie Regency),呼籲政府大力推廣伊斯蘭教法,以解決日益嚴重的社會弊病。2003年5月在亞齊實施的戒嚴令對執行伊斯蘭教法的影響不大。戒嚴局積極推動伊斯蘭教法,將其作為社會重建與和解的積極步驟。一些人權和婦女權利活動人士抱怨說,這種實施只關注表面問題(例如恰當的伊斯蘭服飾),而忽略根深蒂固的道德和社會問題(例如貪腐)。
^The government officially recognizes six religions: Islam, Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism;[13] although the government also officially recognizes Indonesian indigenous religions.[14]
^The Maluku Islands in the Indonesian archipelago were known as the "spice islands". The country's natural spices, including nutmeg, pepper, clove, were highly prized. Other popular trade items of the area include sandalwood, rubber and teak.
^“Conservatism” in this sense connotes the adherence toward the perceived orthodoxy of Islamic principles, rather than the commitment to the Indonesian cultural and societal traditions. Therefore under this framing, it may entail conservatism's proponents advocating for the societal changes, while the proponents of liberalism opposing against them.
^The Indonesian Constitution provides "all persons the right to worship according to their own religion or belief" and states that "the nation is based upon belief in one supreme God." The Government generally respects these provisions; however, some restrictions exist on certain religious activity types and on unrecognised religions. The Ministry of Religious Affairs recognizes official status of six faiths: Islam, Catholicism, Protestantism, Buddhism, Hinduism, Confucianism. Religious organisations other than the six recognised faiths can register with the Government, but only with the Ministry for Culture and Tourism and only as social organisations. This restricts certain religious activities. Unregistered religious groups cannot rent venues to hold services and must find alternative means to practice their faiths. Atheism and agnosticism are not explicitly outlawed but socially stigmatised.
參考文獻
^[go.id/agamadanstatistik/umat Penduduk Menurut Wilayah dan Agama yang Dianut [Population by Region and Religion]] 请检查|url=值 (帮助). Sensus Penduduk 2018. Jakarta, Indonesia: Badan Pusat Statistik. 2018-05-15 [2020-09-03]. Religion is belief in Almighty God that must be possessed by every human being. Religion can be divided into Muslim, Christian (Protestant), Catholic, Hindu, Buddhist, Hu Khong Chu, and Other Religions. Muslim 231,069,932 (86.7), Christian (Protestant)20,246,267 (7.6), Catholic 8,325,339 (3.12), Hindu 4,646,357 (1.74), Buddhist 2,062,150 (0.72), Confucianism 71,999 (0.03),Other Religions/no answer 112,792 (0.04), Total 266,534,836
^Penduduk Menurut Wilayah dan Agama yang Dianut [Population by Region and Religion](PDF). Sensus Penduduk 2018. Jakarta, Indonesia: Badan Pusat Statistik. 2018-05-15 [2020-09-03]. (原始内容(PDF)存档于2021-07-28). Religion is belief in Almighty God that must be possessed by every human being. Religion can be divided into Muslim, Christian (Protestant), Catholic, Hindu, Buddhist, Hu Khong Chu, and Other Religions. Muslim 231,069,932 (86.7), Christian (Protestant)20,246,267 (7.6), Catholic 8,325,339 (3.12), Hindu 4,646,357 (1.74), Buddhist 2,062,150 (0.72), Confucianism 71,999 (0.03),Other Religions/no answer 112,792 (0.04), Total 266,534,836
^Aris Ananta, Evi Nurvidya Arifin, M Sairi Hasbullah, Nur Budi Handayani, Agus Pramono. Demography of Indonesia's Ethnicity. Singapore: ISEAS: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2015. p. 273.
^Randall L. Pouwels (2002), Horn and Crescent: Cultural Change and Traditional Islam, Cambridge University Press, ISBN978-0521523097, pp 88–159
^MN Pearson (2000), The Indian Ocean and the Red Sea, in The History of Islam in Africa (Ed: Nehemia Levtzion, Randall Pouwels), Ohio University Press, ISBN978-0821412978, Chapter 2
^J. Gordon Melton & Martin Baumann. Sumarah. 2021-10-25 [2022-06-05]. (原始内容存档于2022-07-02).
^Bagir, Zainal Abidin; Asfinawati. Limitations to Freedom of Religion or Belief in Indonesia: Norms and Practices. BRILL. 2020-04-23 [2022-06-05]. (原始内容存档于2022-07-04). The Elucidation mentions the so-called ‘streams of (spiritual) beliefs’ (aliran kebatinan, an older name for aliran kepercayaan), which are not to be regarded as “religion”. Together with what scholars of religion call indigenous or local religions, the latter category is ambivalently treated as culture, not religion.
^ 38.038.138.238.338.4Bruinessen, Martin van, Contemporary Developments in Indonesian Islam Explaining the 'Conservative Turn' . ISEAS Publishing, 2013. Retrieved 2017-10-02.
^Ahmad Najib Burhani. The Ahmadiyya and the Study of Comparative Religion in Indonesia: Controversies and Influences. Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations 25 2. Taylor & Francis. 2013-12-18: 143–144.
^Fatima Zainab Rahman. State restrictions on the Ahmadiyya sect in Indonesia and Pakistan: Islam or political survival?. Australian Journal of Political Science (Routledge). 2014, 49 (3): 418–420.
^ 45.045.145.245.3Feener, R. Michael. Muslim legal thought in modern Indonesia. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 2017-10-03.
^ 46.046.1Mujani, Saiful and Liddle, R. William.
Politics, Islam and Public Opinion. (2004) Journal of Democracy, 15:1, p.109-123.
^Raden Abdulkadir Widjojoatmodjo. Islam in the Netherlands East Indies. The Far Eastern Quarterly. November 1942, 2 (1): 48–57. JSTOR 2049278. doi:10.2307/2049278.
^Duff, Mark. Islam in Indonesia. BBC News. 2002-10-25 [2022-09-23]. (原始内容存档于2022-09-24).
^Feener, Michael R. and Laffan, Michael F. Sufi Scents across the Indian Ocean: Yemeni Hagiography and the Earliest History of Southeast Asian Islam. Archipel 70 (2005), p.185-208.
^ 68.068.1Ricklefs, M.C. A History of Modern Indonesia 1200–2004. London: MacMillan. 1991.
^Fred R. Von der Mehden, Two Worlds of Islam: Interaction Between Southeast Asia and the Middle East, 1993
^Ricklefs, M.C. A History of Modern Indonesia 1200–2004. London: MacMillan. 1991: 353–356.
^Kementerian Penerangan Republik Indonesia. Kepartaian di Indonesia(PDF). Jakarta: Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Republik Indonesia. 1951: 72 [2022-09-23]. (原始内容存档(PDF)于2022-10-14).
^Abdullah Saeed, Approaches to the Qur'an in Contemporary Indonesia. Oxford University Press, 2005, p.78-79. Retrieved 2017-09-09.
^Gillespie, P 2007, "Current Issues in Indonesian Islam: Analysing the 2005 Council of Indonesian Ulama Fatwa N0. 7" Journal of Islamic Studies Vol 18, No. 2 pp. 202–240.
^ 91.091.1Kersten, Carool. Islam in Indonesia the Contest for Society, Ideas and Values. (2015) C. Hurst & Co.
^Moch Nur Ichwan, Towards a Puritanical Moderate Islam: The Majelis Ulama Indonesia and the Politics of Religious Orthodoxy. ISEAS Publishing. Retrieved2017-09-09.
^Hefner, Robert. Civil Islam: Muslims and Democratization in Indonesia. (2000) Princeton University Press, p.218.
^Menchik, Jeremy. Islam and Democracy in Indonesia Tolerance without Liberalism. (2017) Cambridge University Press, p.15.
^van Bruinessen, Martin. New Leadership, New Policies? The Nahdlatul Ulama Congress in Makassar. Inside Indonesia 101, July–September 2010. Online at <www.insideindonesia.org/>.
^Poplawska, Marzanna. Wayang Wahyu as an Example of Christian Forms of Shadow Theatre. Asian Theatre Journal (Johns Hopkins University Press). 2004, 21 (2): 194–202. S2CID 144932653. doi:10.1353/atj.2004.0024.
^Indonesia (International Religious Freedom Report 2005). U.S. Department of State. [2022-08-26]. (原始内容存档于2023-01-16). ...signed into law in 2003 that restricted religious freedom by forcing elementary and secondary school students to undergo religious instruction, sometimes in a religion other than their own.