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Capsian culture
The Capsian culture was a late Mesolithic and Neolithic culture centered in the Maghreb that lasted from about 8,000 to 2,700 BC.[1][2][is this date calibrated?] It was named after the town of Gafsa in Tunisia, which was known as Capsa in Roman times. Capsian industry was concentrated mainly in what is now Tunisia and Algeria. It is traditionally divided into two horizons, the Capsien typique (Typical Capsian) and the Capsien supérieur (Upper Capsian), which are sometimes found in chronostratigraphic sequence. Sometimes, a third period, Capsian Neolithic (6,200–5,300 BP) is also specified. They represent variants of one tradition, the differences between them being both typological and technological.[3][4][5] During this period, the environment of the Maghreb was open savanna, much like modern East Africa, with Mediterranean forests at higher altitudes;[6] where the initial phase overlaps with the African humid period.[7] The Capsian diet included a wide variety of animals, ranging from aurochs and hartebeest to hares and snails; there is little evidence concerning plants eaten.[8][9] During the succeeding Neolithic of Capsian Tradition, there is evidence from one site, for domesticated, probably imported, ovicaprids.[10] Given the Capsian culture's timescale, widespread occurrence in the Sahara, and geographic association with modern speakers of the Afroasiatic languages, historical linguists have tentatively associated the industry with the Afroasiatic family's earliest speakers on the continent.[11] Nothing is known about Capsian religion, but their burial methods suggest a belief in an afterlife. Decorative art is widely found at their sites, including figurative and abstract rock art, and ochre is found coloring both tools and corpses. Ostrich eggshells were used to make beads and containers; seashells were used for necklaces. The Iberomaurusian practice of extracting the central incisors continued sporadically but became rarer. Anatomically, Capsian populations were modern Homo sapiens, traditionally classed into two variegate types: Proto-Mediterranean and Mechta-Afalou on the basis of cranial morphology and anthropological traits. Some have argued that they were associated with Mediterranean immigrants from the east such as the Natufians/Pre-Pottery Neolithic,[12] whereas others argue for a population continuity based on physical skeletal characteristics and other criteria.[13][8][14] In 1950, 3 skulls from the Upper Capsian of the Maghreb were measured, and based on indicators of the craniofacial form, considered to have been mixed in traits. The overall anthropological investigation highlighted that their dominant characteristics were conforming to a Mediterranean type, while the minority characteristics conformed to Mechta-Afalou (Iberomarusian) and "Negroid" type. It was suggested that this population was the product of Pre-Neolithic Mectha-Afalous, "White" immigrants from the east, and African migrants from the south.[15] The Eburran industry which dates between 13,000 and 9,000 BC[is this date calibrated?] in East Africa, was formerly known as the "Kenya Capsian" due to similarities in the stone blade shapes. GeneticsRecent genetic studies have further illuminated the origins and diversity of Capsian populations. A forthcoming study by researchers from Harvard University analyzed the DNA of nine late Stone Age individuals from Tunisia and Algeria (PRJEB83667). The findings suggest that the inhabitants of North Africa during this period were predominantly of local North African origin, resembling the Stone Age populations from Taforalt and Ifri N'Ammar in Morocco. This indicates a broad geographical and temporal distribution of a distinctive genetic component in the region. Some of these genomes had contributions from European farmers (~7,000 BP) and Levantine groups (~6,800 BP). Moreover, one sample from Djebba, Tunisia, revealed European hunter-gatherer ancestry dating back to around ~8,000 BP, likely due to human migrations across the Sicilian Straits. Other samples from the Greater East of Morocco demonstrated minimal genetic contributions from European farmers or Eastern groups, reflecting a relatively isolated genetic profile compared to southern Europe and other parts of the Mediterranean. In terms of paternal haplogroups, the study identified the following lineages among the analyzed individuals: The majority belonged to Haplogroup E-M215 Two specimens carried the E-Z1902 lineage (a subclade of E-V65). One sample belonged to the E-M78 haplogroup. Two individuals were assigned to theHaplogroup T-M184 on distinct branches. Maternal haplogroups included: Two individuals with U6a. Two with U6d. One with U6b. Two with R. One with U5b. One with L3f1b-a. These findings align with earlier genetic data from Taforalt and Ifri n'Amr Ou Moussa caves in Morocco. At Taforalt, all samples belonged to the E-M78* haplogroup, while samples from Ifri n'Amr Ou Moussa included E-L19 and a unique E-PF2545 subclade within the E-M81 lineage.[16] Gallery
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