Share to: share facebook share twitter share wa share telegram print page

False flag

A U.S. Douglas A-26C Invader painted in false Cuban Air Force livery depicting those used in the Bay of Pigs Invasion undertaken by the CIA-sponsored paramilitary group Brigade 2506 in April 1961.

A false flag operation is an act committed with the intent of disguising the actual source of responsibility and pinning blame on another party. The term "false flag" originated in the 16th century as an expression meaning an intentional misrepresentation of someone's allegiance.[1][2] The term was originally used to describe a ruse in naval warfare whereby a vessel flew the flag of a neutral or enemy country in order to hide its true identity.[1][2][3] The tactic was initially used by pirates and privateers to deceive other ships into allowing them to move closer before attacking them. It later was deemed an acceptable practice during naval warfare according to international maritime laws, provided the attacking vessel displayed its true flag before commencing an attack.[4][5][6]

The term today extends to include countries that organize attacks on themselves and make the attacks appear to be by enemy nations or terrorists, thus giving the nation that was supposedly attacked a pretext for domestic repression or foreign military aggression.[7] Similarly deceptive activities carried out during peacetime by individuals or nongovernmental organizations have been called false flag operations, but the more common legal term is a "frameup", "stitch up", or "setup".

Use in warfare

In land warfare, such operations are generally deemed acceptable under certain circumstances, such as to deceive enemies, provided the deception is not perfidious and that all such deceptions are discarded before opening fire upon the enemy. Similarly, in naval warfare such a deception is considered permissible, provided the false flag is lowered and the true flag raised before engaging in battle.[8] Auxiliary cruisers operated in such a fashion in both World Wars, as did Q-ships, while merchant vessels were encouraged to use false flags for protection. Such masquerades promoted confusion not just of the enemy but of historical accounts. In 1914 the Battle of Trindade was fought between the British auxiliary cruiser RMS Carmania and the German auxiliary cruiser SMS Cap Trafalgar, which had been altered to look like Carmania. (Contrary to some accounts, the Carmania had not been altered to resemble the Cap Trafalgar.)

Another notable example was the World War II German commerce raider Kormoran, which surprised and sank the Australian light cruiser HMAS Sydney in 1941 while disguised as a Dutch merchant ship, causing the greatest loss of life on an Australian warship. While Kormoran was fatally damaged in the engagement and its crew captured, the outcome represented a considerable psychological victory for the Germans.[9]

The British used a Kriegsmarine ensign in the St Nazaire Raid and captured a German code book. The old destroyer Campbeltown, which the British planned to sacrifice in the operation, was provided with cosmetic modifications that involved cutting the ship's funnels and chamfering the edges to resemble a German Type 23 torpedo boat. By this ruse the British were able to get within two miles (3 km) of the harbour before the defences responded, where the explosive-rigged Campbeltown and commandos successfully disabled or destroyed the key dock structures of the port.[10][11]

Air warfare

Between December 1922 and February 1923, a commission of jurists at the Hague drafted a set of rules concerning the Control of Wireless Telegraphy in Time of War and Air Warfare. They included:[12]

  • Art. 3. A military aircraft must carry an exterior mark indicating its nationality and its military character.
  • Art. 19. The use of false exterior marks is forbidden.

This draft was never adopted as a legally binding treaty, but the International Committee of the Red Cross states in its introduction on the draft: "To a great extent, [the draft rules] correspond to the customary rules and general principles underlying treaties on the law of war on land and at sea",[13] and as such these two non-controversial articles were already part of customary law.[14]

Land warfare

In land warfare, the use of a false flag is similar to that of naval warfare: the trial of Otto Skorzeny, who planned and commanded Operation Greif, by a U.S. military tribunal at the Dachau Trials included a finding that Skorzeny was not guilty of a crime by ordering his men into action in American uniforms. He had relayed to his men the warning of German legal experts: if they fought in American uniforms, they would be breaking the laws of war; however, they probably were not doing so simply by wearing the American uniforms. During the trial, a number of arguments were advanced to substantiate this position and the German and U.S. military seem to have been in agreement.

In the transcript of the trial,[15] it is mentioned that Paragraph 43 of the Field Manual published by the War Department, United States Army, on 1 October 1940, under the entry Rules of Land Warfare states: "National flags, insignias and uniforms as a ruse – in practice it has been authorized to make use of these as a ruse. The foregoing rule (Article 23 of the Annex of the IV Hague Convention), does not prohibit such use, but does prohibit their improper use. It is certainly forbidden to make use of them during a combat. Before opening fire upon the enemy, they must be discarded."

As pretexts for war

Russo-Swedish War

In 1788, the head tailor at the Royal Swedish Opera received an order to sew a number of Russian military uniforms. These were then used by Swedes to stage an attack on Puumala, a Swedish outpost on the Russo-Swedish border, on 27 June 1788. This caused an outrage in Stockholm and impressed the Riksdag of the Estates, the Swedish national assembly, who until then had refused to agree to an offensive war against Russia. The Puumala incident allowed King Gustav III of Sweden, who lacked the constitutional authority to initiate unprovoked hostilities without the Estates' consent, to launch the Russo-Swedish War (1788–1790).[16]

Franco-Prussian War

On July 13, 1870, Otto von Bismarck published the Ems Dispatch, an internal message from King Wilhelm I to Bismarck regarding certain demands made by the French ambassador. In the version purposefully released to the public, Bismarck instead made it sound like the King had gravely disrespected the ambassador – a ploy to trick Emperor Napoleon III into declaring war on the North German Confederation, with the end goal of unifying the northern and southern German states. This ploy would be successful, as Napoleon III would declare war six days later; and six months later, the Confederation would win and unify the German states.

Second Sino-Japanese War

Japanese experts inspect the scene of the "railway sabotage" on the South Manchurian Railway.

In September 1931, Seishirō Itagaki and other Japanese mid- to junior-grade officers, without the knowledge of the Tokyo government, fabricated a pretext for invading Manchuria by blowing up a section of railway. Though the explosion was too weak to disrupt operations on the rail line, the Japanese nevertheless used the Mukden incident to seize Manchuria and create a puppet government in the form of the nominally independent state of Manchukuo.[17]

World War II

Gleiwitz incident

Alfred Naujocks

The Gleiwitz incident in 1939 involved Reinhard Heydrich fabricating evidence of a Polish attack against Germany to mobilize German public opinion for war and to justify the war with Poland. Alfred Naujocks was a key organiser of the operation under orders from Heydrich. It led to the deaths of Nazi concentration camp victims who were dressed as German soldiers and then shot by the Gestapo to make it seem that they had been shot by Polish soldiers. This, along with other false flag operations in Operation Himmler, would be used to mobilize support from the German population for the start of World War II in Europe.[18]

The operation failed to convince international public opinion of the German claims, and both Britain and France – Poland's allies – declared war two days after Germany invaded Poland.[19]

Winter War

On 26 November 1939, the Soviet army shelled Mainila, a Russian village near the Finnish border. Soviet authorities blamed Finland for the attack and used the incident as a pretext to invade Finland, starting the Winter War, four days later.[20][21]

Cuban Revolution

Operation Northwoods

Operation Northwoods memorandum (13 March 1962)[22]

Operation Northwoods, a 1962 plot proposed but never executed by the U.S. Department of Defense for a war with Cuba, involved scenarios such as fabricating the hijacking or shooting down of passenger and military planes, sinking a U.S. ship in the vicinity of Cuba, burning crops, sinking a boat filled with Cuban refugees, attacks by alleged Cuban infiltrators inside the United States, and harassment of U.S. aircraft and shipping and the destruction of aerial drones by aircraft disguised as Cuban MiGs.[22] These actions would be blamed on Cuba, and would be a pretext for an invasion of Cuba and the overthrow of Fidel Castro's communist government. It was authorised by the Joint Chiefs of Staff, but then rejected by President John F. Kennedy. The surprise discovery of the documents relating to Operation Northwoods was a result of the comprehensive search for records related to the assassination of President John F. Kennedy by the Assassination Records Review Board in the mid-1990s.[23] Information about Operation Northwoods was later publicized by James Bamford.[24]

Russian invasion of Ukraine

In January and February 2022, Western government agencies predicted that Russia would use a false flag operation in Ukraine.[25] In the days leading up to the Russian invasion of Ukraine on 24 February, the Russian government intensified its disinformation campaign, with Russian state media promoting false flags on a nearly hourly basis purporting to show Ukrainian forces attacking Russia, in a bid to justify an invasion of Ukraine.[26][27] Many of the disinformation videos were poor and amateur in quality, with mismatching metadata showing incorrect dates,[27] and evidence from Bellingcat researchers, and other independent journalists, showed that the claimed attacks, explosions, and evacuations in Donbas were staged by Russia.[26][27][28][29][30]

As a tactic to undermine political opponents

Operation TPAJAX

On 4 April 1953, the CIA was ordered to undermine the government of Iran over a four-month period, as a precursor to overthrowing Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh. One tactic used to undermine Mosaddegh was to carry out false flag attacks "on mosques and key public figures", to be blamed on Iranian communists loyal to the government.[31]

The CIA operation was code-named TPAJAX. The tactic of a "directed campaign of bombings by Iranians posing as members of the Communist party" involved the bombing of "at least one" well known Muslim's house by CIA agents posing as Communists.[32] The CIA determined that the tactic of false flag attacks added to the "positive outcome" of TPAJAX.[31]

However, as "the C.I.A. burned nearly all of its files on its role in the 1953 coup in Iran", the true extent of the tactic has been difficult for historians to discern.[33]

Operation Susannah

In the summer of 1954, a group of Egyptian Jews recruited by Israeli army intelligence were caught with plans to bomb American, British, and Egyptian civil targets in Egypt. The bombs were timed to detonate several hours after closing time. The bombings were to be blamed on the Muslim Brotherhood, Egyptian Communists, "unspecified malcontents", or "local nationalists", with the aim of creating a climate of sufficient violence and instability to induce the British government to refrain from evacuating its troops occupying Egypt's Suez Canal zone, a move that would embolden Egyptian President Nasser against Israel. However, the plot was exposed before launch and Egyptian authorities were able to tail an operative to his target, arrest him and later search his apartment where the entire plan, including the names of other agents and explosive materials, was held. Unknown to Israel Prime Minister Moshe Sharet, the exposé caused a scandal in Israel, with Israeli officials blaming one another for the operation and the Israeli defense minister, Pinhas Lavon, resigning under pressure. Later, two investigative committees found that Lavon was unaware of the operation.[34][35][36]

Failed operations

Due to its deceptive nature a false flag operation can fail in such a manner as to implicate the perpetrator rather than the intended victim.

A notable example is an April 2022 FSB operation where would-be Ukrainian assassins of Russian propagandist Vladimir Solovyov were filmed while being arrested. The footage published by the FSB was however found to implicate the FSB as having staged the arrest. Together with weapons, drugs, Ukrainian passports and Nazi memorabilia the footage also prominently showed three expansion packs for the Sims 3 video game. Investigative journalist Eliot Higgins interpreted this to mean that the arrest was in fact staged, with its organizers misunderstanding an instruction "to get 3 SIMs". Further lending credence to the arrest being staged was footage of a note with a Russian phrase, which in fact read signature unclear. This was again interpreted as a misunderstood instruction, this time taken too literally. The FSB subsequently published a version of the footage with the Sims games blurred out.[37][38][39]

Pseudo-operations

Pseudo-operations are those in which forces of one power disguise themselves as enemy forces. For example, a state power may disguise teams of operatives as insurgents and, with the aid of defectors, infiltrate insurgent areas.[40] The aim of such pseudo-operations may be to gather short or long-term intelligence or to engage in active operations, in particular assassinations of important enemies. However, they usually involve both, as the risks of exposure rapidly increase with time and intelligence gathering eventually leads to violent confrontation. Pseudo-operations may be directed by military or police forces, or both. Police forces are usually best suited to intelligence tasks; however, military provide the structure needed to back up such pseudo-ops with military response forces. According to US military expert Lawrence Cline (2005), "the teams typically have been controlled by police services, but this largely was due to the weaknesses in the respective military intelligence systems."[41]

Charlemagne Péralte of Haiti was assassinated in 1919 after checkpoints were passed by military disguised as guerrilla fighters.

The State Political Directorate (OGPU) of the Soviet Union set up such an operation from 1921 to 1926. During Operation Trust, they used loose networks of White Army supporters and extended them, creating the pseudo-"Monarchist Union of Central Russia" (MUCR) in order to help the OGPU identify real monarchists and anti-Bolsheviks.[42]

An example of a successful assassination was United States Marine Sergeant Herman H. Hanneken leading a patrol of his Haitian Gendarmerie disguised as enemy guerrillas in 1919. The patrol successfully passed several enemy checkpoints in order to assassinate the guerilla leader Charlemagne Péralte near Grande-Rivière-du-Nord. Hanneken was awarded the Medal of Honor[43] and was commissioned a Second Lieutenant for his deed.[citation needed]

During the Mau Mau uprising in the 1950s, captured Mau Mau members who switched sides and specially trained British troops initiated the pseudo-gang concept to successfully counter Mau Mau. In 1960, Frank Kitson, who was later involved in the Northern Irish conflict and is now a retired British general, published Gangs and Counter-gangs, an account of his experiences with the technique in Kenya. Information included how to counter gangs and measures of deception, including the use of defectors, which brought the issue a wider audience.[citation needed]

Another example of combined police and military oversight of pseudo-operations include the Selous Scouts in the former country Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), governed by white minority rule until 1980. The Selous Scouts were formed at the beginning of Operation Hurricane, in November 1973, by Major (later Lieutenant Colonel) Ronald Reid-Daly. As with all Special Forces in Rhodesia, by 1977 they were controlled by COMOPS (Commander, Combined Operations) Commander Lieutenant General Peter Walls. The Selous Scouts were originally composed of 120 members, with all officers being white and the highest rank initially available for black soldiers being colour sergeant. They succeeded in turning approximately 800 insurgents who were then paid by Special Branch, ultimately reaching the number of 1,500 members. Engaging mainly in long-range reconnaissance and surveillance missions, they increasingly turned to offensive actions, including the attempted assassination of Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army leader Joshua Nkomo in Zambia. This mission was finally aborted by the Selous Scouts, and attempted again, unsuccessfully, by the Rhodesian Special Air Service.[44]

Some offensive operations attracted international condemnation, in particular the Selous Scouts' raid on a Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA) camp at Nyadzonya Pungwe, Mozambique in August 1976. ZANLA was then led by Josiah Tongogara. Using Rhodesian trucks and armored cars disguised as Mozambique military vehicles, 84 scouts killed 1,284 people in the camp, registered as a refugee camp by the United Nations (UN). Even according to Reid-Daly, most of those killed were unarmed guerrillas standing in formation for a parade. The camp hospital was also set ablaze by the rounds fired by the Scouts, killing all patients.[45] According to David Martin and Phyllis Johnson, who visited the camp shortly before the raid, it was only a refugee camp that did not host any guerrillas. It was staged for UN approval.[46]

According to a 1978 study by the Directorate of Military Intelligence, 68% of all insurgent deaths inside Rhodesia could be attributed to the Selous Scouts, who were disbanded in 1980.[47]

If the action is a police action, then these tactics would fall within the laws of the state initiating the pseudo, but if such actions are taken in a civil war or during a belligerent military occupation then those who participate in such actions would not be privileged belligerents. The principle of plausible deniability is usually applied for pseudo-teams. (See the above section Laws of war). Some false flag operations have been described by Lawrence E. Cline, a retired US Army intelligence officer, as pseudo-operations, or "the use of organized teams which are disguised as guerrilla groups for long- or short-term penetration of insurgent-controlled areas".[40]

"Pseudo-operations should be distinguished," notes Cline, "from the more common police or intelligence infiltration of guerrilla or criminal organizations. In the latter case, infiltration is normally done by individuals. Pseudo teams, on the other hand, are formed as needed from organized units, usually military or paramilitary. The use of pseudo teams has been a hallmark of a number of foreign counterinsurgency campaigns."[40]

Similar false flag tactics were also employed during the Algerian civil war, starting in the middle of 1994. Death squads composed of Département du Renseignement et de la Sécurité (DRS) security forces disguised themselves as Islamist terrorists and committed false flag terror attacks. Such groups included the Organisation of Young Free Algerians (OJAL) or the Secret Organisation for the Safeguard of the Algerian Republic (OSSRA).[48] According to Roger Faligot and Pascal Kropp (1999), the OJAL was reminiscent of "the Organization of the French Algerian Resistance (ORAF), a group of counter-terrorists created in December 1956 by the Direction de la surveillance du territoire (Territorial Surveillance Directorate, or DST) whose mission was to carry out terrorist attacks with the aim of quashing any hopes of political compromise".[49]

Espionage

In espionage, the term "false flag" describes the recruiting of agents by operatives posing as representatives of a cause the prospective agents are sympathetic to, or even the agents' own government. For example, during the Cold War, several female West German civil servants were tricked into stealing classified documents by agents of the East German Stasi intelligence service pretending to be members of West German peace advocacy groups (the Stasi agents were also described as "Romeos", indicating that they also used their sex appeal to manipulate their targets, making this operation a combination of the false flag and "honey trap" techniques).[50]

According to ex-KGB defector Jack Barsky, "Many a right-wing radical had given information to the Soviets under a 'false flag', thinking they were working with a Western ally, such as Israel, when in fact their contact was a KGB operative."[51]

Civilian usage

The term is popular amongst conspiracy theory promoters in referring to covert operations of various governments and claimed cabals.[52] According to Columbia Journalism Review, this usage mostly "migrated to the right", however because some historical false flag incidents occurred, historians should not fully cede the usage of the term to conspiracy theorists. Perlman says "The real danger is if we use the nonattributive 'false flags' as shorthand for conspiracy theories, without explaining what they are and who is promoting them." At the same time, Perlman writes that "people yelling that any attack attributed to someone on 'their side' was committed by 'the other side' drown out the voices of reason."[2]

Political campaigning

Political campaigning has a long history of this tactic in various forms, including in person, print media and electronically in recent years. This can involve when supporters of one candidate pose as supporters of another, or act as "straw men" for their preferred candidate to debate against. This can happen with or without the candidate's knowledge. The Canuck letter is an example of one candidate's creating a false document and attributing it as coming from another candidate in order to discredit that candidate.[citation needed]

In 2006, individuals practicing false flag behavior were discovered and "outed" in New Hampshire[53][54] and New Jersey[55] after blog comments claiming to be from supporters of a political candidate were traced to the IP address of paid staffers for that candidate's opponent.

On 19 February 2011, Indiana Deputy Prosecutor Carlos Lam sent a private email to Wisconsin Governor Scott Walker suggesting that he run a "'false flag' operation" to counter the protests against Walker's proposed restrictions on public employees' collective bargaining rights:

If you could employ an associate who pretends to be sympathetic to the unions' cause to physically attack you (or even use a firearm against you), you could discredit the unions ... Employing a false flag operation would assist in undercutting any support the media may be creating in favor of the unions.[56][57]

The press had acquired a court order to access all of Walker's emails and Lam's email was exposed. At first, Lam vehemently denied it, but eventually admitted it and resigned.[57]

Some conservative commentators suggested that pipe bombs that were sent to prominent Democrats prior to the 2018 mid-term elections were part of a false flag effort to discredit Republicans and supporters of then-President Donald Trump.[58] Cesar Sayoc, motivated by his belief that Democrats were “evil”, was later convicted of mailing the devices to Trump's critics.[59]

On the internet, a concern troll is a false flag pseudonym created by a user whose actual point of view is opposed to the one that the troll claims to hold. The concern troll posts in web forums devoted to its declared point of view and attempts to sway the group's actions or opinions while claiming to share their goals, but with professed "concerns". The goal is to sow fear, uncertainty, and doubt within the group often by appealing to outrage culture.[60] This is a particular case of sockpuppeting and safe-baiting.

Ideological

A bomb threat forged by Scientology operatives

Proponents of political or religious ideologies will sometimes use false flag tactics. This can be done to discredit or implicate rival groups, create the appearance of enemies when none exist, or create the illusion of organized and directed persecution. This can be used to gain attention and sympathy from outsiders, in particular the media, or to convince others within the group that their beliefs are under attack and in need of protection.

In retaliation for writing The Scandal of Scientology, some members of the Church of Scientology stole stationery from author Paulette Cooper's home and then used that stationery to forge bomb threats and have them mailed to a Scientology office. The Guardian's Office also had a plan for further operations to discredit Cooper known as Operation Freakout, but several Scientology operatives were arrested in a separate investigation and the plan was exposed.[61]

According to PolitiFact, some false flag conspiracy theories (such as claims that mass shootings are hoaxes) are themselves spread by astroturfing, which is an attempt to create false impression of popularity in a belief.[62]

See also

Concepts

References

  1. ^ a b O'Conner, Patricia; Kellerman, Stewart (11 May 2018). "The True History of False Flags". Grammarphobia.com. Retrieved 9 June 2020.
  2. ^ a b c "How the term 'false flag' migrated to the right". Columbia Journalism Review. Retrieved 23 December 2021.
  3. ^ "False flags: What are they and when have they been used?". BBC News. 18 February 2022. Retrieved 20 May 2022.
  4. ^ Politakis, George P. (2018). Modern Aspects of the Laws of Naval Warfare and Maritime Neutrality. Taylor & Francis. pp. 281–. ISBN 978-1-136-88577-8.
  5. ^ Faye Kert (30 September 2015). Privateering: Patriots and Profits in the War of 1812. JHU Press. pp. 62–. ISBN 978-1-4214-1747-9.
  6. ^ Donald R. Hickey; Connie D. Clark (8 October 2015). The Routledge Handbook of the War of 1812. Routledge. pp. 64–. ISBN 978-1-317-70198-9.
  7. ^ deHaven-Smith, Lance (2013). Conspiracy Theory in America. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 225
  8. ^ "the use of a false flag has always been accepted as a legitimate ruse de guerre in naval warfare, the true battle flag being run up immediately before engaging" (Thomas, Rosamund M., ed. (1993), Teaching Ethics: Government ethics, Centre for Business and Public, p. 80, ISBN 9781871891034).
  9. ^ Squires, Nick. "HMAS Sydney found off Australia's west coast", The Telegraph, 17 March 2008.
  10. ^ Guinness World Records (2009), p.155
  11. ^ Young, P (Ed) (1973) Atlas of the Second World War (London: The Military Book Society)
  12. ^ The Hague Rules of Air Warfare, December 1922 to February 1923, this convention was never adopted (backup site).
  13. ^ "Rules concerning the Control of Wireless Telegraphy in Time of War and Air Warfare. Drafted by a Commission of Jurists at the Hague, December 1922 – February 1923: Introduction". ICRC. Retrieved 30 October 2010.
  14. ^ Gómez, Javier Guisández (20 June 1998). "The Law of Air Warfare". International Review of the Red Cross. 38 (323): 347–63. doi:10.1017/S0020860400091075. Archived from the original on 25 April 2013.
  15. ^ Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals. United Nations War Crimes Commission. Vol IX, 1949: Trial of Otto Skorzeny and others. Archived 2 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine. General Military Government Court of the U.S. zone of Germany 18 August to 9 September 1947.
  16. ^ Mattila, Tapabi (1983). Meri maamme turvana: Suomen meripuolustuksen vaiheita Ruotsin vallan aikana [The Sea As Our Country's Security: Phases of Finnish Sea Defense During Swedish Rule] (in Finnish). Jyväskylä: Suomi Merellä-säätiö. p. 142. ISBN 951-99487-0-8.
  17. ^ Weland, James (1994). "Misguided Intelligence: Japanese Military Intelligence Officers in the Manchurian Incident, September 1931". The Journal of Military History. 58 (3): 445–460. JSTOR 2944134.
  18. ^ Lightbody, Bradley (2004). The Second World War: Ambitions to Nemesis. Abingdon-on-Thames: Routledge. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-415-22405-5.
  19. ^ Zaloga, Steve (2004) [originally published in 2002 by Osprey Publishing]. Poland 1939: The Birth of Blitzkrieg (illustrated ed.). Westport: Praeger Publishers. p. 39. ISBN 978-0275982782.
  20. ^ Turtola, Martti (1999). "Kansainvälinen kehitys Euroopassa ja Suomessa 1930-luvulla". In Leskinen, Jari; Juutilainen, Antti (eds.). Talvisodan pikkujättiläinen [The Little Giant of the Winter War]. Werner Söderström Osakeyhtiö. pp. 44–45.
  21. ^ Murphy, David (2021). The Finnish-Soviet Winter War 1939-40 Stalin's Hollow Victory. Johnny Shumate. London: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-4728-4394-4. OCLC 1261364794.
  22. ^ a b "Pentagon Proposes Pretexts for Cuba Invasion in 1962". National Security Archive. 30 April 2001. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 14 August 2024.
  23. ^ P. Horne, Douglas (2009). Inside the Assassination Records Review Board: The U.S. Government's Final Attempt to Reconcile the Conflicting Medical Evidence in the Assassination of JFK. self-published. ISBN 978-0984314447. Retrieved 30 October 2018.
  24. ^ Bamford, James (2002). Body of Secrets: Anatomy of the Ultra-Secret National Security Agency. Anchor Books. pp. 82–91. ISBN 978-0-385-49907-1.
  25. ^ Walton, Calder (4 February 2022). "False-Flag Invasions Are a Russian Specialty". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 14 March 2022.
  26. ^ a b Gilbert, David (21 February 2022). "Russia's 'Idiotic' Disinformation Campaign Could Still Lead to War in Ukraine". Vice News. Vice Media. Archived from the original on 21 February 2022. Retrieved 22 February 2022.
  27. ^ a b c "Four Russian false flags that are comically easy to debunk". The Daily Telegraph. 21 February 2022. Archived from the original on 22 February 2022. Retrieved 22 February 2022.
  28. ^ "Russia says it prevented border breach from Ukraine, Kyiv calls it fake news". Reuters. 21 February 2022. Archived from the original on 21 February 2022. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
  29. ^ Bellingcat Investigation Team (23 February 2022). "Documenting and Debunking Dubious Footage from Ukraine's Frontlines". Bellingcat. Archived from the original on 23 February 2022. Retrieved 24 February 2022.
  30. ^ "'Dumb and lazy': the flawed films of Ukrainian 'attacks' made by Russia's 'fake factory'". The Guardian. 21 February 2022. Archived from the original on 21 February 2022. Retrieved 22 February 2022.
  31. ^ a b Callanan, James (30 November 2009). Covert Action in the Cold War: US Policy, Intelligence and CIA Operations. London: I.B. Tauris. p. 115. ISBN 978-0857711663.
  32. ^ Risen, James (16 April 2000). "SECRETS OF HISTORY: The C.I.A. in Iran — A Special Report; How a Plot Convulsed Iran in '53 (and in '79)". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 22 July 2016. Retrieved 14 August 2024.
  33. ^ Weiner, Tim (29 May 1997). "C.I.A. Destroyed Files on 1953 Iran Coup". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 16 November 2020. Retrieved 14 August 2024.
  34. ^ The encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli conflict: a political, social, and military history. ABC-CLIO. 2008. p. 610.
  35. ^ Black, Ian; Morris, Benny (1 June 1992). Israel's secret wars: a history of Israel's intelligence services. Grove Press. p. 111. ISBN 978-0-8021-3286-4. Retrieved 19 June 2011.
  36. ^ S. Teveth (1996). Ben-Gurion's spy: the story of the political scandal that shaped modern Israel. Columbia University Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-231-10464-7.
  37. ^ Teh, Cheryl (26 April 2022). "Journalists mocked Russia's spy agency after copies of the 'Sims 3' video game were spotted in a clip of agents allegedly foiling an assassination plot". Business Insider. Retrieved 14 August 2024.
  38. ^ Klimentov, Mikhail. "Alleged Russian sting operation uncovers 'The Sims 3,' guns, grenade". washingtonpost.com. The Washington Post. Retrieved 14 August 2024.
  39. ^ Childs, Simon. "Russia Bizarrely Includes Sims 3 Among Evidence of 'Staged' Assassination Plot". www.vice.com. Vice Media. Retrieved 14 August 2024.
  40. ^ a b c Cline, Lawrence E. (2005) Pseudo Operations and Counterinsurgency: Lessons from other countries, Archived 16 November 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Strategic Studies Institute.
  41. ^ "Excerpt – Pseudo Operations and Counterinsurgency: Lessons from Other Countries". ssi.armywarcollege.edu. Archived from the original on 2 May 2017. Retrieved 16 October 2019.
  42. ^ Andrew, Christopher (2001). The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB. Basic Books. pp. 33–35, 42. ISBN 0-465-00312-5.
  43. ^ "Ex-Marine Corps Gen. Hanneken Dies". Los Angeles Times. 27 August 1986. ISSN 0458-3035. Retrieved 7 November 2017.
  44. ^ Cline (2005), p. 11.
  45. ^ Cline (2005), quoting Reid-Daly, Pamwe Chete: The Legend of the Selous Scouts, Weltevreden Park, South Africa: Covos-Day Books, 1999, p. 10 (republished by Covos Day, 2001, ISBN 978-1-919874-33-3).
  46. ^ Cline (2005), who quotes David Martin and Phyllis Johnson, The Struggle for Zimbabwe: the Chimurenga War, New York: Monthly Review Press, 1981, pp. 241–242.
  47. ^ Cline (2005), pp. 8–13. For 1978 study, quotes J. K. Cilliers, Counter-insurgency in Rhodesia, London: Croom Helm, 1985, pp. 60–77. Cline also quotes Ian F. W. Beckett, The Rhodesian Army: Counter-Insurgency 1972–1979 at selousscouts.
  48. ^ Lounis Aggoun and Jean-Baptiste Rivoire (2004). Françalgérie, crimes et mensonges d'Etats, (Franco-Algeria, Crimes and Lies of the States). Editions La Découverte [fr]. ISBN 2-7071-4747-8. Extract in English with mention of the OJAL available here.
  49. ^ Luonis Aggoun and Jean-Baptiste Rivoire, ibid., quoting Roger Faligot and Pascal KROP, DST, Police Secrète, Flammarion, 1999, p. 174.
  50. ^ Crawford, Angus (20 March 2009). "Victims of Cold War 'Romeo spies'". BBC Online. Retrieved 10 April 2009.
  51. ^ Barsky, Jack (2017). Deep undercover : my secret life and tangled allegiances as a KGB spy in America. Carol Stream, IL. ISBN 978-1-4964-1686-5. OCLC 979545331.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  52. ^ Usckinski, Joseph (27 October 2018). "Five things to know about 'false flag' conspiracy theories". The Washington Post. Retrieved 9 June 2020.
  53. ^ Steele, Allison, "Bass staffer in D.C. poses as blogger: Bogus posts aimed at his political opponent"Archived 12 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Concord Monitor, 26 September 2006 (URL last accessed 24 October 2006).
  54. ^ Saunders, Anne, "Bass aide resigns after posing as opponent's supporter online", The Boston Globe, 26 September 2006 (URL last accessed 24 October 2006).
  55. ^ Miller, Jonathan, "Blog Thinks Aide to Kean Posted Jabs At Menendez", The New York Times, 21 September 2006 (URL last accessed 24 October 2006).
  56. ^ Golden, Kate (24 March 2011). "Indiana prosecutor resigns over Walker email". WisWatch.org. Wisconsin Center for Investigative Journalism. Retrieved 21 June 2016.
  57. ^ a b Montopoli, Brian (25 March 2011). "Indiana prosecutor resigns for encouraging fake attack on Wisconsin governor". CBS News. Archived from the original on 12 April 2012.
  58. ^ Collins, Ben; Abbruzzese, Jason (26 October 2018). "After 'false flag' narrative takes hold, some conservatives scramble to drown out far right". nbcnews.com. NBC News. Retrieved 9 July 2021.
  59. ^ "Cesar Sayoc, who mailed explosive devices to Trump's critics, sentenced to 20 years in prison". The Washington Post. 5 August 2019. Retrieved 7 August 2019.
  60. ^ Cox, Ana Marie (16 December 2006). "Making Mischief on the Web". Time. Archived from the original on 13 January 2007. Retrieved 24 March 2009.
  61. ^ United States of America v. Jane Kember, Morris Budlong, Sentencing Memorandum; pp. 23–25.
  62. ^ "Why do some people think mass shootings are staged every time?". @politifact. 2019.
  • The dictionary definition of false flag at Wiktionary

Read other articles:

Poernomo Hadi Karier militerPihak IndonesiaDinas/cabang TNI Angkatan DaratPangkat Mayor Jenderal TNINRP12602SatuanPolisi Militer (CPM)Sunting kotak info • L • B Mayor Jenderal TNI (Purn.) Poernomo Hadi merupakan seorang perwira tinggi angkatan darat Indonesia. Pendidikan U.S. Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, Amerika Serikat (1963)[1] Referensi ^ Bachtiar, Harsya W. (1988). Siapa dia? Perwira Tinggi Tentara Nasional Indonesia Angkatan Darat (…

Jan Hendrik Weissenbruch, karya Jozef Israëls (1882) Jan Hendrik Weissenbruch, juga dikenal sebagai Hendrik Johannes Weissenbruch (19 Juni 1824 – 24 Maret 1903) adalah seorang pelukis Belanda dari Aliran Den Haag. Ia dikenal karena karya-karya warna cairnya. Daftar pustaka Sillevis, John & Tabak, Anne. The Hague School Book, Waanders Uitgegevers, Zwolle (2004), pp. 229–237 Leeuw, Ronald de; Sillervis, John and Dumas, Charles (1983): The Hague School: Dutch Masters of …

Artikel ini sebatang kara, artinya tidak ada artikel lain yang memiliki pranala balik ke halaman ini.Bantulah menambah pranala ke artikel ini dari artikel yang berhubungan atau coba peralatan pencari pranala.Tag ini diberikan pada Januari 2023. Alfabet Yunani IberiaPlakat timbal dari la Serreta (Alcoi)Jenis aksara Alfabet BahasaIberiaPeriodeabad ke-5 hingga ke-1 SMArah penulisanKiri ke kananAksara terkaitSilsilahHieroglif MesirAbjad Proto-SinaiAbjad FenisiaAlfabet Yunani (ragam Ionia)Alfabet Yun…

Si ce bandeau n'est plus pertinent, retirez-le. Cliquez ici pour en savoir plus. Cet article ne cite pas suffisamment ses sources (août 2021). Si vous disposez d'ouvrages ou d'articles de référence ou si vous connaissez des sites web de qualité traitant du thème abordé ici, merci de compléter l'article en donnant les références utiles à sa vérifiabilité et en les liant à la section « Notes et références » En pratique : Quelles sources sont attendues ? Comment…

Swedish football club Football clubVimmerby IFFull nameVimmerby IdrottsföreningNickname(s)VIFFounded1919GroundVimarvallenVimmerby SwedenCapacity3,000ChairmanMagnus Budo ErikssonHead CoachChrister ErikssonCoachJohan Fröberg Kjell CarlssonLeagueDivision 2 Södra Svealand Home colours Away colours Vimmerby IF (founded in 1919) is a Swedish football club located in Vimmerby in Kalmar County.[1] VIF won the 2009–10 Swedish Futsal Championship[2] and were Sweden's representative in…

Cet article fait partie de la série :Constitution des États-Unis PréambuleArticles de la Constitution I ∙ II ∙ III ∙ IV ∙ V ∙ VI ∙ VII Amendements Déclaration des droits I ∙ II ∙ III ∙ IV ∙ V ∙ VI ∙ VII ∙ VIII ∙ IX ∙ XAmendements additionnels XI ∙ XII ∙ XIII ∙ XIV ∙ XV XVI ∙ XVII ∙ XVIII ∙ XIX ∙ XX XXI ∙ XXII ∙ XXIII ∙ XXIV ∙ XXV XXVI ∙ XXVIIAmendements proposés Amendement Blaine Amendement Bricker Titres de noblesse Textes comple…

United States historic placeRoper HotelU.S. National Register of Historic PlacesRecorded Texas Historic Landmark Roper Hotel in 2010Roper HotelShow map of TexasRoper HotelShow map of the United StatesLocationUS 281 and 3rd St.,Marble Falls, TexasCoordinates30°34′16″N 98°16′31″W / 30.57111°N 98.27528°W / 30.57111; -98.27528Arealess than one acreBuilt1888 (1888)NRHP reference No.80004083[1]RTHL No.9745Significant datesAdded to NR…

Istana Kumamoto Istana Kumamoto (熊本城; -jō) adalah istana di Kumamoto, Prefektur Kumamoto, Jepang, yang dibuka untuk umum. Istana ini dikepung selama Pemberontakan Satsuma. Istana ini baru saja merayakan ulang tahunnya yang ke-400. Pada 7 Desember 2007, renovasi bersakala besar telah selesai. Upacara umum untuk restorasi diadakan pada 20 April 2008. Daftar pustaka Schmorleitz, Morton S. (1974). Castles in Japan. Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle Co. hlm. 114–116. ISBN 0-8084-1102-4 Peri…

Синелобый амазон Научная классификация Домен:ЭукариотыЦарство:ЖивотныеПодцарство:ЭуметазоиБез ранга:Двусторонне-симметричныеБез ранга:ВторичноротыеТип:ХордовыеПодтип:ПозвоночныеИнфратип:ЧелюстноротыеНадкласс:ЧетвероногиеКлада:АмниотыКлада:ЗавропсидыКласс:Птиц…

Halaman ini berisi artikel tentang olahraga kriket; Twenty20, versi profesional dari permainan tersebut. Untuk penjelasan tentang twenty amatir atas kriket, lihat Kriket bentuk pendek. Untuk film Malayalam, lihat Twenty:20 (film). Untuk penggunaan lain, lihat 2020 (disambiguasi). Sebuah pertandingan Twenty20 antara Inggris dan Sri Lanka di Hampshire Rose Bowl pada 15 Juni 2006 Kriket Twenty20, yang terkadang disebut Twenty-20, dan sering kali disingkat menjadi T20, adalah sebuah bentuk pendek da…

Berzano di San PietroKomuneComune di Berzano di San PietroNegaraItaliaWilayah PiedmontProvinsiProvinsi Asti (AT)FrazioniValle Gervaso, Valle OcheraPemerintahan • Wali kotaSergio TejaLuas • Total7,4 km2 (29 sq mi)Populasi (1 Januari 2009) • Total440 • Kepadatan5,9/km2 (15/sq mi)DemonimBerzanesiZona waktuUTC+1 (CET) • Musim panas (DST)UTC+2 (CEST)Kode pos14020Kode area telepon011 Berzano di San Pietro adalah …

Varieties of the color white Off-white redirects here. For other uses, see Off-white (disambiguation). White Common connotationsPurity, snow, brightness     Color coordinatesHex triplet#FFFFFFsRGBB (r, g, b)(255, 255, 255)HSV (h, s, v)(0°, 0%, 100%)CIELChuv (L, C, h)(100, 0, 0°)SourceBy definitionB: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) Shades of white are colors that differ only slightly from pure white. Variations of white include what are commonly termed off-white colors, which …

Cette cathédrale n’est pas la seule cathédrale Notre-Dame-de-l'Assomption. CathédraleNotre-Dame-de-l'Assomption de Clermont Présentation Culte Catholique romain Dédicataire Assomption de Marie Type Cathédrale Rattachement Archidiocèse de Clermont (siège) Début de la construction 1248 Fin des travaux 1902 Style dominant Roman (crypte)Gothique (reste de l'édifice) Protection  Classée MH (1862) Site web Paroisse Notre-Dame de Clermont Géographie Pays France Région Auvergne-…

Zazie BeetzZazie Beetz di San Diego Comic-Con tahun 2018LahirZazie Olivia BeetzMitte, Berlin, JermanKebangsaanAmerika SerikatJermanPendidikanFiorello H. LaGuardia High SchoolAlmamaterSkidmore CollegePekerjaanAktrisTahun aktif2013–sekarang Zazie Olivia Beetz[1] (Jerman: [ˈzasiː ˈbeːts])[2][3] merupakan seorang aktris Amerika Serikat-Jerman. Ia dikenal sebagai aktris dalam serial drama komedi FX Atlanta (2016–sekarang).[4][5] Ia juga mun…

保良局馬錦明夫人章馥仙中學Po Leung Kuk Mrs.Ma-Cheung Fook Sien College翻漆後的校舍東北面(2022年3月)地址 香港新界離島區大嶼山東涌富東邨类型津貼中學宗教背景無隶属保良局创办日期1997年学区香港離島區東涌校長柯玉琼女士副校长鄭健華先生,劉俊偉先生助理校长梁煥儀女士职员人数56人年级中一至中六学生人数約700人,24個班別校訓愛、敬、勤、誠校歌保良局屬下校歌分…

Boeing Starliner spacecraft CalypsoCalypso at Cape Canaveral in December 2019.TypeSpace capsuleClassBoeing StarlinerEponymRV CalypsoSerial no.Spacecraft 3OwnerBoeingManufacturerBoeingSpecificationsDimensions5 m × 4.5 m (16 ft × 15 ft)Launch mass13,000 kilograms (29,000 lb)PowerSolar cells; 2.9 kW (3.9 hp)RocketAtlas V N22HistoryLocationCape Canaveral, FloridaFirst flight20–22 December 2019Boeing Orbital Flight TestFlights1Flight time49 hoursB…

Family of flowering plants Cyrillaceae Cyrilla racemiflora in Myrtle Beach, SC Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae Clade: Tracheophytes Clade: Angiosperms Clade: Eudicots Clade: Asterids Order: Ericales Family: CyrillaceaeLindl.[1] Genera CliftoniaCyrilla The Cyrillaceae are a small family of flowering plants in the order Ericales, native to warm temperate to tropical regions of the Americas. The family comprises two genera, Cliftonia and Cyrilla, each containing a single species,…

この項目には、一部のコンピュータや閲覧ソフトで表示できない文字が含まれています(詳細)。 数字の大字(だいじ)は、漢数字の一種。通常用いる単純な字形の漢数字(小字)の代わりに同じ音の別の漢字を用いるものである。 概要 壱万円日本銀行券(「壱」が大字) 弐千円日本銀行券(「弐」が大字) 漢数字には「一」「二」「三」と続く小字と、「壱」「弐」…

American music critic (1915–2001) Paul HumePaul Hume and Marie Handy performing Gian Carlo Menotti's comic opera The Telephone, or L'Amour à trois at Catholic University, Washington DC, 1952BornPaul Chandler Hume(1915-12-13)December 13, 1915Chicago, IllinoisDiedNovember 27, 2001(2001-11-27) (aged 85)Baltimore, MarylandAlma mater University of Chicago OccupationsMusic criticauthorNotable credit The Washington Post Paul Chandler Hume (December 13, 1915 – November 27, 2001) was an Am…

American surface-to-air missile system MIM-104 Patriot A Patriot system of the German Air Force in August 2013TypeMobile surface-to-air missile/anti-ballistic missile systemPlace of originUnited StatesService historyIn serviceSince 1981; initial operational capacity 1984[1]Used bySee operatorsWarsGulf WarIraq War2014 Israel–Gaza conflictSyrian Civil WarYemeni Civil War (2015–present)Saudi Arabian-led intervention in YemenSaudi Arabian–Yemeni border conflict (201…

Kembali kehalaman sebelumnya