Following the Goldwater–Nichols Act in 1986, the Joint Chiefs of Staff do not have operational command authority, either individually or collectively, as the chain of command goes from the president to the secretary of defense, and from the secretary to the regional combatant commanders.[7] Goldwater–Nichols also created the office of vice chairman, and the chairman is now designated as the principal military adviser to the secretary of defense, the Homeland Security Council, the National Security Council and the president.[8]
The Joint Staff (JS) is a headquarters staff in the Pentagon, composed of personnel from each of the six service branches, that assists the chairman and the vice chairman in discharging their responsibilities and is managed by the director of the Joint Staff (DJS).[9]
Role and responsibilities
The Joint Chiefs of Staff in November 2024.
After the 1986 reorganization of the Armed Forces undertaken by the Goldwater–Nichols Act, the Joint Chiefs of Staff does not possess operational authority over troops or other units. Responsibility for conducting military operations goes from the president to the secretary of defense directly to the commanders of the unified combatant commands and thus bypasses the Joint Chiefs of Staff completely.
Today, their primary responsibility is to ensure personnel readiness, policy, planning and training of their respective services for the combatant commanders to utilize. In addition, the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff acts as the chief military advisor to the president and the secretary of defense. In this strictly advisory role, the Joint Chiefs constitute the third-highest deliberative body for military policy, after the National Security Council and the Homeland Security Council, which includes the president and other officials besides the chairman of the Joint Chiefs.
While serving as the chairman or vice chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, chief of staff of the Army, commandant of the Marine Corps, Chief of Naval Operations, chief of staff of the Air Force, or commandant of the Coast Guard, basic pay is $18,491.70 a month,[10] plus a $4,000 per year personal money allowance.[11]
Although it is a branch of the Armed Forces pursuant to 14 U.S.C.§ 101, the Coast Guard operates under the Department of Homeland Security rather than the Department of Defense, except when the president (e.g., in times of war or national emergency) transfers it to the Department of the Navy.[12] The commandant of the Coast Guard is not a de jure member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff but is sometimes regarded as a de facto member, being entitled to the same supplemental pay as the Joint Chiefs,[13] and occasionally will attend meetings of the JCS by invitation.[14] Unlike the Joint Chiefs, who are not actually in the military's operational chain of command, the commandant is both the administrative and the operational commander of the Coast Guard.
As the U.S. military grew in size following the American Civil War, joint military action between the Army and Navy became increasingly difficult. The Army and Navy were unsupportive of each other at either the planning or operational level and were constrained by disagreements during the Spanish–American War in the Caribbean campaigns.[15][16] The Joint Army and Navy Board was established in 1903 by President Theodore Roosevelt, comprising representatives from the military heads and chief planners of both the Navy's General Board and the Army's General Staff. The Joint Board acting as an "advisory committee" was created to plan joint operations and resolve problems of common rivalry between the two services.[15][16]
Yet the Joint Board accomplished little since its charter gave it no authority to enforce its decisions. The Joint Board also lacked the ability to originate its own opinions and was thus limited to commenting only on the problems submitted to it by the secretaries of war and Navy. As a result, the Joint Board had little to no impact on the manner in which the United States conducted World War I.
After World War I, the two secretaries agreed in 1919 to reestablish and revitalize the Joint Board. The mission of the General Staff was to develop plans for mobilization for the next war. In these, the U.S. was always designated "blue" and potential enemies were assigned various other colors.[17]
Now, the Joint Board's membership was to include the chiefs of staff, their deputies, and the chief of war plans division for the Army and the director of plans division for the Navy. Under the Joint Board was to be a staff called the Joint Planning Committee to serve the board. Along with new membership, the Joint Board could initiate recommendations on its own initiative. However, the Joint Board still did not possess the legal authority to enforce its decisions.
World War II
Joint Chiefs of Staff meeting (c. 1943). From left to right are: Gen. Henry H. Arnold, Chief of the Army Air Forces; Adm. William D. Leahy, Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy; Adm. Ernest J. King, Commander in Chief, U.S. Fleet and Chief of Naval Operations; and Gen. George C. Marshall, Chief of Staff of the United States Army.
The UK portion of the CCS would be composed of the British Chiefs of Staff Committee, but the United States had no equivalent body. The Joint Board's lack of authority made it of little use to the CCS, although its 1935 publication, Joint Action of the Army and Navy, did give some guidance for the joint operations during World War II. The Joint Board had little influence during the war and was ultimately disbanded in 1947.
As a counterpart to the UK's Chiefs of Staff Committee in the CCS, and to provide better-coordinated effort and coordinated staff work for America's military effort, AdmiralWilliam D. Leahy proposed a "unified high command" in what would come to be called the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Modeled on the British Chiefs of Staff Committee, the JCS' first formal meeting was held on 9 February 1942, to coordinate operations between War and Navy Departments.[18][19] The official history of the Army Air Forces noted that although there was "no official charter establishing this committee...by the end of February it had assumed responsibilities toward the American war effort comparable to the CCS on the combined level."[20] On 20 July 1942, Admiral Leahy became the "Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief", with all individual service chiefs operating under his authority.
The first members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff were:[21]
Each of the members of the original Joint Chiefs was a four-star flag or general officer in his service branch. By the end of the war each had been promoted: Leahy and King to fleet admiral; Marshall and Arnold to general of the Army. Arnold was later appointed to the grade of general of the Air Force.
One of the Joint Chiefs of Staff's committees was the Joint Strategic Survey Committee (JSSC). The JSSC, "one of the most influential planning agencies in the wartime armed forces", was an extraordinary JCS committee that existed from 1942 until 1947.[22] Members included Lieutenant General Stanley D. Embick, U.S. Army, chairman, 1942–1946, Vice Admiral Russell Willson, U.S. Navy, 1942–1945, Vice Admiral Theodore Stark Wilkinson, U.S. Navy, 1946, and Major General Muir S. Fairchild, U.S. Army Air Force, 1942–?.
National Security Act of 1947
With the end of World War II, the Joint Chiefs of Staff was officially established under the National Security Act of 1947. Per the National Security Act, the JCS consisted of a chairman, the chief of staff of the Army, the chief of staff of the Air Force (which was established as a separate service by the same Act), and the chief of naval operations. The commandant of the Marine Corps was to be consulted on matters concerning the Corps, but was not a regular member; General Lemuel C. Shepherd, Jr., Commandant in 1952–55, was the first to sit as an occasional member. The law was amended during the term of General Louis H. Wilson, Jr. (1975–79), making the commandant a full-time JCS member in parity with the other three DoD services.
The position of vice chairman was created by the Goldwater–Nichols Act of 1986 to complement the CJCS, as well as to delegate some of the chairman's responsibilities, particularly resource allocation through the Joint Requirements Oversight Council (JROC).
General Colin L. Powell (Chairman, 1989–1993) was the first African American to serve on the Joint Chiefs of Staff when he became the 12th Chairman of the JCS in 1989. General Charles Q. Brown Jr. was the first African American appointed to lead a service branch when he became the Chief of Staff of the Air Force in 2020. On May 25, 2023, President Joe Biden nominated General Brown to become the 21st Chairman of the JCS. General Brown was subsequently confirmed and took up the post of chairman on October 1, 2023. General Richard B. Myers (Chairman, 2001–2005) was the first vice chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff to serve as chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. General Peter Pace (Vice Chairman 2001–2005; Chairman, 2005–2007) was the first Marine to serve in either position. Admiral Lisa Franchetti became the first woman to serve on the JCS when she took over as Chief of Naval Operations on November 2, 2023.[23][24]
National Defense Authorization Act of 2012
A provision in the 2012 National Defense Authorization Act added the Chief of the National Guard Bureau to the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Guard historians called it the "most significant development" for the National Guard since the Militia Act of 1903.[1]
On 20 July 1942, Fleet AdmiralWilliam D. Leahy became Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief (20 July 1942 – 21 March 1949). He was not technically the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Leahy's office was the precursor to the post of "Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff". That post was established and first held by General of the Army Omar Bradley in 1949.
The current and 21st chairman is General Charles Q. Brown Jr., who began his tenure on 29 September 2023.
The position of Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff was created by the Goldwater–Nichols Act of 1986. The vice chairman is a four-star-general or admiral and, by law, is the second highest-ranking member of the U.S. Armed Forces (after the chairman). In the absence of the chairman, the vice chairman presides over the meetings of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. He may also perform such duties as the chairman may prescribe. It was not until the National Defense Authorization Act in 1992 that the position was made a full voting member of the JCS.[29]
The current vice chairman is Admiral Christopher W. Grady, who began his tenure on 20 December 2021.
The senior enlisted advisor to the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (SEAC) advises on all matters concerning joint and combined total force integration, utilization, development, and helps develop noncommissioned officers related joint professional education, enhance utilization of senior NCOs on joint battle staffs, and support the chairman's responsibilities as directed.
Command Sergeant Major William Gainey, was the first SEAC, serving from 1 October 2005. The current SEAC is Troy E. Black, who was sworn in by General Charles Q. Brown Jr., chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, on 3 November 2023, replacing SEAC Ramón Colón-López.
The chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (CJCS) is assisted by the director of the Joint Staff (DJS), a three-star officer who assists the chairman with the management of the Joint Staff, an organization composed of approximately equal numbers of officers contributed by the Army, the Navy and Marine Corps, the Air Force, the Space Force, and the Coast Guard, who have been assigned to assist the chairman in providing to the secretary of defense unified strategic direction, operation, and integration of the combatant land, naval, space, and air forces. The director is assisted by the vice director of the Joint Staff, a two-star officer.
Former Secretary of Defense Mark Esper tasked the Joint Staff with developing a Joint Warfighting Concept[JadConcept 1] for the services by December 2020.[32] Developing Joint all-domain command and control (JADC2) as a concept[JadConcept 1] is a key goal of the 20th CJCS.[32] An OSD/Joint Staff Cross-Functional Team for JADC2 is underway.[33][34] Esper ordered the four services and the Joint Staff to create a new joint warfighting concept for All-domain operations, operating simultaneously in the air, land, sea, space, cyber, and the electromagnetic spectrum (EMS).[35] The Joint Chiefs and Combatant Commanders witnessed demonstrations of the concept in September 2020.[36]
Organization
The Joint Staff Organization Chart as of March 2018
The Joint Staff includes the following departments where all the planning, policies, intelligence, manpower, communications and logistics functions are translated into action.[37]
Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff
Vice Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff
Director, Joint Staff – assists the Chairman in his role as advisor to the President and Secretary of Defense, coordinates and directs activities of the Joint Staff in support of the Chairman, and serves as the staff inspector general.
Vice Director, Joint Staff
J1 – Director, Manpower and Personnel
J2 – Director, Intelligence
J3 – Director, Operations
J4 – Director, Logistics
J5 – Director, Strategy, Plans, and Policy
J6 – Director, Command, Control, Communications, and Computers / Chief Information Officer
J7 – Director, Joint Force Development
J8 – Director, Force Structure, Resources, and Assessment
Director of Management
Secretary, Joint Staff (SJS) – overall management and administration of JS actions
Joint History Office – record activities of the chairman and the Joint Staff
Assistant to the Chairman – oversees matters requiring close personal control by the chairman with particular focus on international relations and politico-military concerns
Senior Enlisted Advisor to the Chairman (SEAC) – advisor to the chairman on all matters involving joint and combined total force integration, utilization, health of the force, and joint development for enlisted personnel
Directorates of the Joint Staff
The Joint Chiefs of Staff (seated) and the directors of the Joint Staff directorates (standing), November 1989.
The Joint Staff includes the following departments where all the planning, policies, intelligence, manpower, communications and logistics functions are translated into action.[37]
The J-6 Joint Deployable Analysis Team (JDAT) conducts assessments in conjunction with Combatant Command exercises, experiments, and test and evaluation events.[41]
J7 – Joint Force Development
The J-7 is responsible for the six functions of joint force development: Doctrine, Education, Concept Development & Experimentation, Training, Exercises and Lessons Learned.
J8 – Force Structure, Resources, and Assessment
Joint Chiefs of Staff: Civilian awards
The Joint Chiefs may recognize private citizens, organizations or career civilian government employees for significant achievements provided to the joint community with one of the following decorations/awards.[42]
Although, as discussed above, the commandant of the Coast Guard is not an ex officio member of the JCS like the other service chiefs, Coast Guard officers are legally eligible to be appointed as Chairman and Vice Chairman, pursuant to 10 U.S.C.§ 152(a)(1) and 10 U.S.C.§ 154(a)(1) respectively, which use the collective term "armed forces" rather than listing the eligible services, as well as to other positions on the Joint Staff. As of 2020[update], no Coast Guard officer has been appointed Chairman or Vice Chairman, but Coast Guard officers routinely serve on the JCS staff, including one vice admiral who was appointed to serve as J6 in 2016.
Gallery
The Joint Chiefs of Staff during its early days in 1949.
Members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff at The Pentagon in 1958.
The Joint Chiefs of Staff in 1959.
The Joint Chiefs of Staff in 1961.
The Joint Chiefs of Staff in 1968.
The Joint Chiefs of Staff in 1971.
The Joint Chiefs of Staff in 1977.
Members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff with President-Elect Jimmy Carter and Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld on December 17, 1976.
Members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff during a cabinet meeting in the White House in 1977
Members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff at Andrews Air Force Base during a funeral service ceremony for the late President Gerald Ford on December 26, 2006.
^"Washington Eats". Life. 5 October 1942. p. 95. Retrieved 20 November 2011.
^Stoler, Mark A. (1982). "From Continentalism to Globalism: General Stanley D. Embick, the Joint Strategic Survey Committee, and the Military View of American National Policy during the Second World War". Diplomatic History. 6 (3): 303–320 [quote at p. 307]. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7709.1982.tb00378.x.
^"Joint Doctrine constitutes official advice, however, the judgment of the commander is paramount in all situations." —Director Joint Force Development (1JAN19) Joint Electronic Library
"A computer-coordinated fight": in the air, land, sea, space, cyber, and the electromagnetic spectrum (EMS)
"forces from satellites to foot soldiers to submarines sharing battle data at machine-to-machine speed"
"it's the ability to integrate and effectively command and control all domains in a conflict or in a crisis seamlessly"—Gen. Hyten, Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs
All-Domain Operations use global capabilities: "space, cyber, deterrent [the nuclear triad (for mutually assured destruction in the Cold War, an evolving concept in itself)], transportation, electromagnetic spectrum operations, missile defense"
^Theresa Hitchens (3 Sep 2020) ABMS Demo Proves AI Chops For C2 The acquisition method for several of the capabilities being demonstrated would be indefinite delivery/indefinite quantity (ID/IQ), but the decisions to buy would be made by the Combatant Commands. —Air Force acquisition executive Will Roper
Gillespie, Robert M. The Joint Chiefs of Staff and the Escalation of the Vietnam Conflict, 1964–1965. Masters Thesis, Clemson University, 1994. OCLC32515894.
Joint Chiefs of Staff. Organizational Development of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, 1942–1987. Joint Secretariat, Joint Chiefs of Staff, 1988.
Jordan, Jonathan W., American Warlords: How Roosevelt's High Command Led America to Victory in World War II (NAL/Caliber 2015).
McMaster, H. R. Dereliction of Duty: Lyndon Johnson, Robert McNamara, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the Lies That Led to Vietnam. New York: HarperCollins, 1997.
Perry, Mark. Four Stars: The Inside Story of the Forty-Year Battle Between the Joint Chiefs of Staff and America's Civilian Leaders. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1989, ISBN0-395-42923-4.
Rearden, Steven L. History of the Office of the Secretary of Defense. Two vols. Washington, D.C.: Historical Office, Office of the Secretary of Defense, 1984.
Artikel ini menjelaskan karya atau unsur fiksi dalam gaya fiksi. Silakan memperbaiki artikel ini dan jelaskan juga dari sudut pandang non-fiksi. Artikel ini tidak memiliki referensi atau sumber tepercaya sehingga isinya tidak bisa dipastikan. Tolong bantu perbaiki artikel ini dengan menambahkan referensi yang layak. Tulisan tanpa sumber dapat dipertanyakan dan dihapus sewaktu-waktu.Cari sumber: Hildegarde – berita · surat kabar · buku · cendekiawan · JSTO…
Nama ini menggunakan cara penamaan Portugis. Nama keluarga pertama atau maternalnya adalah Simarelli dan nama keluarga kedua atau paternalnya adalah Winter. Marcos WinterWinter, 2005LahirMarcos César Simarelli WinterSão Paulo, BrasilPekerjaanPemeranTahun aktif1988–sekarang Marcos César Simarelli Winter adalah pemeran Brasil. Filmografi 2019 Segunda Chamada[1][2][3] 2017 Apocalipse - Oswaldo RecordTV[4] 2015 Magnifica 70 - Vicente HBO Brasil 2013 Flor…
John Mair dalam cukil kayu kontemporer. John Major (atau Mair; juga dikenal dalam bahasa Latin sebagai Joannes Majoris dan Haddingtonus Scotus; 1467–1550) adalah seorang filsuf, teolog, dan sejarawan Skotlandia yang sangat dikagumi pada zamannya dan merupakan pengaruh yang diakui pada semua pemikir besar pada masa itu. Sebagai seorang guru yang terkenal, karya-karyanya banyak dikoleksi dan sering diterbitkan ulang di seluruh Eropa. Konservatisme yang waras dan pendekatannya yang skeptis dan lo…
Kiki Yuliati Direktur Jenderal Pendidikan Vokasi Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan IndonesiaPetahanaMulai menjabat 30 Juni 2022PresidenJoko WidodoMenteriNadiem Makarim PendahuluWikan SakarintoPenggantiPetahana Informasi pribadiLahir5 Juli 1964 (umur 59)Bandung, Jawa BaratKebangsaanIndonesiaPartai politikIndependenSuami/istriProf. Dr. Ir. H. Robiyanto Hendro Susanto, M.Agr.Sc. (Almarhum)AnakRosisnko Hiro Susanto, Klanita SabiraAlma materInstitut Pertanian Bogor North Carolina State U…
Edward Emerson BarnardEdward Emerson BarnardLahir(1857-12-16)16 Desember 1857Nashville, Tennessee, ASMeninggal6 Februari 1923(1923-02-06) (umur 65)Williams Bay, Wisconsin, ASKebangsaanAmerika SerikatDikenal atas Bintang Barnard Astrofotografi Penghargaan Penghargaan Lalande (1892) Medali Janssen (1900) Medali Bruce (1917) Karier ilmiahBidangAstronomi Edward Emerson Barnard (16 Desember 1857 – 6 Februari 1923), atau yang lebih dikenal dengan nama E. E. Barnard adalah astronom…
Artikel ini sebatang kara, artinya tidak ada artikel lain yang memiliki pranala balik ke halaman ini.Bantulah menambah pranala ke artikel ini dari artikel yang berhubungan atau coba peralatan pencari pranala.Tag ini diberikan pada Januari 2023. Sastra mahjar atau sastra diaspora adalah aliran sastra yang dihasilkan oleh sastrawan Arab yang hidup di berbagai negara tempat mereka bermigrasi, berpindah, atau berhijrah. Kata mahjar berasal dari kata هجر (hajara) yang memiliki arti ‘berpindah, m…
Federasi Sepak Bola TunisiaCAFDidirikan1956Kantor pusatTunisBergabung dengan FIFA1960Bergabung dengan CAF1960PresidenKamel Ben AmorWebsitewww.ftf.org.tn Federasi Sepak Bola Tunisia (Prancis: Fédération Tunisienne de Footballcode: fr is deprecated , Arab: الجامعة التونسية لكرة القدمcode: ar is deprecated ) adalah badan pengendali sepak bola di Tunisia. Kompetisi Badan ini menyelenggarakan beberapa kompetisi di Tunisia, yakni: Liga Profesional Tunisia 1 Liga Profesional T…
Reece James James bermain untuk Wigan Athletic pada 2018Informasi pribadiNama lengkap Reece James[1]Tanggal lahir 7 November 1993 (umur 30)Tempat lahir Bacup, Lancashire, InggrisTinggi 1,82 m (5 ft 11+1⁄2 in)Posisi bermain BekInformasi klubKlub saat ini Sheffield WednesdayNomor 33Karier junior Rossendale United Blackburn Rovers Preston North End2012–2013 Manchester UnitedKarier senior*Tahun Tim Tampil (Gol)2013–2015 Manchester United 0 (0)2013 → Carlisle U…
MeulabohDaerah tingkat IIPantai Batu Putih di Kota MeulabohJulukan: Kota Tauhid SufiPetaMeulabohPetaTampilkan peta SumatraMeulabohMeulaboh (Indonesia)Tampilkan peta IndonesiaKoordinat: 4°08′N 96°07′E / 4.13°N 96.12°E / 4.13; 96.12Negara IndonesiaProvinsiAcehDasar hukumUndang-Undang Nomor 23 Tahun 2014Hari jadi28 April 2020; 3 tahun yang laluJumlah satuan pemerintahan Daftar Kecamatan: 4Kelurahan: 123 Luas • Total60,36 km2 (2,331 sq&…
Election in Colorado Main article: 1920 United States presidential election 1920 United States presidential election in Colorado ← 1916 November 2, 1920 1924 → Nominee Warren G. Harding James M. Cox Party Republican Democratic Home state Ohio Ohio Running mate Calvin Coolidge Franklin D. Roosevelt Electoral vote 6 0 Popular vote 173,248 104,936 Percentage 59.32% 35.93% County Results Harding 40–50% 50–60% 60–…
This article includes a list of references, related reading, or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (November 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Hachioji Velodrome (八王子自転車競技場, Hachiōji Jitenshakyōgijō) was a temporary velodrome located in the Hachiōji, Tokyo area. Constructed between March and August 1964, it hosted the track cycling …
Highest mountain in the Arabian Peninsula Jabal An-Nabī ShuʿaybJabal Hadhur[1][2][3] (جَبَل حَضُوْر)Jabal An-Nabi Shu'ayb, a peak in the Haraz Mountains, near Sanaa in YemenHighest pointElevation3,666 m (12,028 ft)[4]Prominence3,311 m (10,863 ft)[4] Ranked 62ndIsolation554 km (344 mi) ListingCountry high pointUltraCoordinates15°16′45″N 43°58′33″E / 15.27917°N 43.97583°E…
Italian politician Guido GrimodGuido Grimod in 2002Mayor of AostaIn office8 May 2000 – 25 May 2010[1]Preceded byPier Luigi ThiébatSucceeded byBruno Giordano Personal detailsBorn (1951-02-13) 13 February 1951 (age 73)[1][2]Aosta, ItalyPolitical partyValdostan Union[1][3]Occupationemployee[1] Guido Grimod (born 13 February 1951) is an Italian politician. He is member of the Valdostan Union party[4] and served as mayor of Aost…
artikel ini perlu dirapikan agar memenuhi standar Wikipedia. Tidak ada alasan yang diberikan. Silakan kembangkan artikel ini semampu Anda. Merapikan artikel dapat dilakukan dengan wikifikasi atau membagi artikel ke paragraf-paragraf. Jika sudah dirapikan, silakan hapus templat ini. (Pelajari cara dan kapan saatnya untuk menghapus pesan templat ini) Artikel ini tidak memiliki referensi atau sumber tepercaya sehingga isinya tidak bisa dipastikan. Tolong bantu perbaiki artikel ini dengan menambahka…
Disambiguazione – Se stai cercando altri significati, vedi Maryland (disambigua). Marylandstato federato(EN) State of Maryland (dettagli) (dettagli) Maryland – VedutaBaltimora LocalizzazioneStato Stati Uniti AmministrazioneCapoluogoAnnapolis GovernatoreWes Moore (D) dal 2023 Data di istituzione28 aprile 1788 TerritorioCoordinatedel capoluogo38°58′22″N 76°30′17″W / 38.972778°N 76.504722°W38.972778; -76.504722 (Maryland)Coordinate: 38°58′22″…
Wayne Gretzky's #99 was retired league-wide in 2000 [1] This is a complete list of numbers retired by the National Hockey League (NHL). A retired number is a jersey number that is taken out of circulation by a team as a way of honouring a former member of that team who wore that number; after the number's retirement, members of that team are not permitted to wear the number on their jerseys unless by permission of the original number holder. The first team to retire a number was the Toro…
Traditional Romanian spirit This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Țuică – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message) A bottle of home-produced Țuică in Sighetu Marmației served alongside other Easter feasts. Noted an interlocking wooden sti…
Part of a series onEuropean colonizationof the Americas First wave Basque British Curonian Danish Dutch French German Hospitaller Italian Norse Portuguese Russian Scottish Spanish Swedish Colonization of Canada Colonization of the United States Decolonization History portalvte Denmark and the former real union of Denmark–Norway had a colonial empire from the 17th through the 20th centuries, large portions of which were found in the Americas. Denmark and Norway in one form or another …
Pour les articles homonymes, voir Rogers. Cet article est une ébauche concernant une actrice et une productrice américaine. Vous pouvez partager vos connaissances en l’améliorant (comment ?) selon les conventions filmographiques. Consultez la liste des tâches à accomplir en page de discussion. Si ce bandeau n'est plus pertinent, retirez-le. Cliquez ici pour en savoir plus. Cet article ne cite pas suffisamment ses sources (juin 2016). Si vous disposez d'ouvrages ou d'articles de réf…
.svg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
_pose_for_a_portrait_in_an_office_at_the_Pentagon_1983.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
