List of presidents of the United States

The president of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States,^[1] indirectly elected to a four-year term via the Electoral College.^[2] The officeholder leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces.^[3] Since the office was established in 1789, 45 men have served in 46 presidencies. The first president, George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College.^[4] Grover Cleveland served two non-consecutive terms and is therefore counted as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States, giving rise to the discrepancy between the number of presidencies and the number of individuals who have served as president.^[5]

The presidency of William Henry Harrison, who died 31 days after taking office in 1841, was the shortest in American history.^[6] Franklin D. Roosevelt served the longest, over twelve years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. He is the only U.S. president to have served more than two terms.^[7] Since the ratification of the Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1951, no person may be elected president more than twice, and no one who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected may be elected more than once.^[8]

Four presidents died in office of natural causes (William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor, Warren G. Harding, and Franklin D. Roosevelt), four were assassinated (Abraham Lincoln, James A. Garfield, William McKinley, and John F. Kennedy), and one resigned (Richard Nixon, facing impeachment and removal from office).^[9] John Tyler was the first vice president to assume the presidency during a presidential term, and set the precedent that a vice president who does so becomes the fully functioning president with his own administration.^[10]

Throughout most of its history, American politics has been dominated by political parties. The Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, no organized parties existed. Soon after the 1st Congress convened, political factions began rallying around dominant Washington administration officials, such as Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson.^[11] Concerned about the capacity of political parties to destroy the fragile unity holding the nation together, Washington remained unaffiliated with any political faction or party throughout his eight-year presidency. He was, and remains, the only U.S. president never affiliated with a political party.^[12]

The incumbent president is Joe Biden, who assumed office on January 20, 2021.^[13]

Presidents

List of presidents of the United States from 1789 – till date.
No.^[a]	Name (Birth–Death)	Term^[14]		Election	Vice President^[16]
1	George Washington (1732–1799) ^[17]	April 30, 1789 – March 4, 1797	Unaffiliated	1788–1789 1792	John Adams^[c]
2	John Adams (1735–1826) ^[19]	March 4, 1797 – March 4, 1801	Federalist	1796	Thomas Jefferson^[d]
3	Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) ^[21]	March 4, 1801 – March 4, 1809	Democratic- Republican	1800 1804	Aaron Burr George Clinton
4	James Madison (1751–1836) ^[22]	March 4, 1809 – March 4, 1817	Democratic- Republican	1808 1812	George Clinton^[e] Vacant after April 20, 1812 Elbridge Gerry^[e] Vacant after November 23, 1814
5	James Monroe (1758–1831) ^[24]	March 4, 1817 – March 4, 1825	Democratic- Republican	1816 1820	Daniel D. Tompkins
6	John Quincy Adams (1767–1848) ^[25]	March 4, 1825 – March 4, 1829	Democratic- Republican^[f] National Republican	1824	John C. Calhoun^[g]
7	Andrew Jackson (1767–1845) ^[28]	March 4, 1829 – March 4, 1837	Democratic	1828 1832	John C. Calhoun^[h] Vacant after December 28, 1832 Martin Van Buren
8	Martin Van Buren (1782–1862) ^[29]	March 4, 1837 – March 4, 1841	Democratic	1836	Richard Mentor Johnson
9	William Henry Harrison (1773–1841) ^[30]	March 4, 1841 – April 4, 1841^[e]	Whig	1840	John Tyler
10	John Tyler (1790–1862) ^[31]	April 4, 1841^[i] – March 4, 1845	Whig^[j] Unaffiliated	–	Vacant throughout presidency
11	James K. Polk (1795–1849) ^[34]	March 4, 1845 – March 4, 1849	Democratic	1844	George M. Dallas
12	Zachary Taylor (1784–1850) ^[35]	March 4, 1849 – July 9, 1850^[e]	Whig	1848	Millard Fillmore
13	Millard Fillmore (1800–1874) ^[36]	July 9, 1850^[k] – March 4, 1853	Whig	–	Vacant throughout presidency
14	Franklin Pierce (1804–1869) ^[38]	March 4, 1853 – March 4, 1857	Democratic	1852	William R. King^[e] Vacant after April 18, 1853
15	James Buchanan (1791–1868) ^[39]	March 4, 1857 – March 4, 1861	Democratic	1856	John C. Breckinridge
16	Abraham Lincoln (1809–1865) ^[40]	March 4, 1861 – April 15, 1865^[e]	Republican National Union^[l]	1860 1864	Hannibal Hamlin Andrew Johnson
17	Andrew Johnson (1808–1875) ^[42]	April 15, 1865^[m] – March 4, 1869	National Union^[n] Democratic	–	Vacant throughout presidency
18	Ulysses S. Grant (1822–1885) ^[43]	March 4, 1869 – March 4, 1877	Republican	1868 1872	Schuyler Colfax Henry Wilson^[e] Vacant after November 22, 1875
19	Rutherford B. Hayes (1822–1893) ^[44]	March 4, 1877 – March 4, 1881	Republican	1876	William A. Wheeler
20	James A. Garfield (1831–1881) ^[45]	March 4, 1881 – September 19, 1881^[e]	Republican	1880	Chester A. Arthur
21	Chester A. Arthur (1829–1886) ^[46]	September 19, 1881^[o] – March 4, 1885	Republican	–	Vacant throughout presidency
22	Grover Cleveland (1837–1908) ^[48]	March 4, 1885 – March 4, 1889	Democratic	1884	Thomas A. Hendricks^[e] Vacant after November 25, 1885
23	Benjamin Harrison (1833–1901) ^[49]	March 4, 1889 – March 4, 1893	Republican	1888	Levi P. Morton
24	Grover Cleveland (1837–1908) ^[48]	March 4, 1893 – March 4, 1897	Democratic	1892	Adlai Stevenson I
25	William McKinley (1843–1901) ^[50]	March 4, 1897 – September 14, 1901^[e]	Republican	1896 1900	Garret Hobart^[e] Vacant after November 21, 1899 Theodore Roosevelt
26	Theodore Roosevelt (1858–1919) ^[51]	September 14, 1901^[p] – March 4, 1909	Republican	– 1904	Vacant through March 4, 1905 Charles W. Fairbanks
27	William Howard Taft (1857–1930) ^[53]	March 4, 1909 – March 4, 1913	Republican	1908	James S. Sherman^[e] Vacant after October 30, 1912
28	Woodrow Wilson (1856–1924) ^[54]	March 4, 1913 – March 4, 1921	Democratic	1912 1916	Thomas R. Marshall
29	Warren G. Harding (1865–1923) ^[55]	March 4, 1921 – August 2, 1923^[e]	Republican	1920	Calvin Coolidge
30	Calvin Coolidge (1872–1933) ^[56]	August 2, 1923^[q] – March 4, 1929	Republican	– 1924	Vacant through March 4, 1925 Charles G. Dawes
31	Herbert Hoover (1874–1964) ^[58]	March 4, 1929 – March 4, 1933	Republican	1928	Charles Curtis
32	Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882–1945) ^[59]	March 4, 1933 – April 12, 1945^[e]	Democratic	1932 1936 1940 1944	John Nance Garner Henry A. Wallace Harry S. Truman
33	Harry S. Truman (1884–1972) ^[60]	April 12, 1945^[r] – January 20, 1953	Democratic	– 1948	Vacant through January 20, 1949 Alben W. Barkley
34	Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890–1969) ^[62]	January 20, 1953 – January 20, 1961	Republican	1952 1956	Richard Nixon
35	John F. Kennedy (1917–1963) ^[63]	January 20, 1961 – November 22, 1963^[e]	Democratic	1960	Lyndon B. Johnson
36	Lyndon B. Johnson (1908–1973) ^[64]	November 22, 1963^[s] – January 20, 1969	Democratic	– 1964	Vacant through January 20, 1965 Hubert Humphrey
37	Richard Nixon (1913–1994) ^[66]	January 20, 1969 – August 9, 1974^[h]	Republican	1968 1972	Spiro Agnew^[h] Vacant: October 10 – December 6, 1973 Gerald Ford^[t]
38	Gerald Ford (1913–2006) ^[67]	August 9, 1974^[u] – January 20, 1977	Republican	–	Vacant through December 19, 1974 Nelson Rockefeller^[t]
39	Jimmy Carter (b. 1924) ^[68]	January 20, 1977 – January 20, 1981	Democratic	1976	Walter Mondale
40	Ronald Reagan (1911–2004) ^[69]	January 20, 1981 – January 20, 1989	Republican	1980 1984	George H. W. Bush
41	George H. W. Bush (1924–2018) ^[70]	January 20, 1989 – January 20, 1993	Republican	1988	Dan Quayle
42	Bill Clinton (b. 1946) ^[71]	January 20, 1993 – January 20, 2001	Democratic	1992 1996	Al Gore
43	George W. Bush (b. 1946) ^[72]	January 20, 2001 – January 20, 2009	Republican	2000 2004	Dick Cheney
44	Barack Obama (b. 1961) ^[73]	January 20, 2009 – January 20, 2017	Democratic	2008 2012	Joe Biden
45	Donald Trump (b. 1946) ^[74]	January 20, 2017 – January 20, 2021	Republican	2016	Mike Pence
46	Joe Biden (b. 1942) ^[13]	January 20, 2021 – Incumbent	Democratic	2020	Kamala Harris

Notes

^ Presidents are numbered according to uninterrupted periods served by the same person. For example, George Washington served two consecutive terms and is counted as the first president (not the first and second). Upon the resignation of 37th president, Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford became the 38th president even though he simply served out the remainder of Nixon's second term and was never elected to the presidency in his own right. Grover Cleveland was both the 22nd president and the 24th president because his two terms were not consecutive. A vice president who temporarily becomes acting president under the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the Constitution is not counted, because the president remains in office during such a period.
^ Reflects the president's political party at the start of their presidency. Changes during their time in office are noted. Also reflects the vice president's political party unless otherwise noted beside the individual's name.
^ Political parties had not been anticipated when the Constitution was drafted, nor did they exist at the time of the first presidential election in 1788–89. When they did develop, during Washington's first term, Adams joined the faction that became the Federalist Party. The elections of 1792 were the first ones in the United States that were contested on anything resembling a partisan basis.^[18]
^ The 1796 presidential election was the first contested American presidential election and the only one in which a president and vice president were elected from opposing political parties. Federalist John Adams was elected president, and Jefferson of the Democratic-Republicans was elected vice president.^[20]
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o Died in office^[23]
^ Early during John Quincy Adams' term, the Democratic-Republican Party dissolved; his allies in Congress and at the state level were referred to as "Adams' Men" during the Adams presidency. When Andrew Jackson became president in 1829, this group became the "Anti-Jackson" opposition, and organized themselves as the National Republican Party.^[26]
^ John Calhoun, formerly a Democratic-Republican, founded the Nullifier Party in 1828 to oppose the Tariff of 1828 and advance the cause of states' rights, but was brought on as Andrew Jackson's running mate in the 1828 presidential election in an effort to broaden the democratic coalition led by Jackson.^[27]
^ ^a ^b ^c Resigned from office^[23]
^ John Tyler succeeded to the presidency upon the death of William Henry Harrison.^[32]
^ John Tyler was elected vice president on the Whig Party ticket in 1840. His policy priorities as president soon proved to be opposed to most of the Whig agenda, and he was expelled from the party five months after assuming office.^[33]
^ Millard Fillmore succeeded to the presidency upon the death of Zachary Taylor.^[37]
^ When he ran for reelection in 1864, Republican Abraham Lincoln formed a bipartisan electoral alliance with War Democrats by selecting Democrat Andrew Johnson as his running mate, and running on the National Union Party ticket.^[41]
^ Andrew Johnson succeeded to the presidency upon the death of Abraham Lincoln.^[42]
^ While president, Andrew Johnson tried and failed to build a party of loyalists under the National Union banner. Near the end of his presidency, Johnson rejoined the Democratic Party.^[42]
^ Chester A. Arthur succeeded to the presidency upon the death of James A. Garfield.^[47]
^ Theodore Roosevelt succeeded to the presidency upon the death of William McKinley.^[52]
^ Calvin Coolidge succeeded to the presidency upon the death of Warren G. Harding.^[57]
^ Harry S. Truman succeeded to the presidency upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt.^[61]
^ Lyndon B. Johnson succeeded to the presidency upon the death of John F. Kennedy.^[65]
^ ^a ^b Appointed as vice president under terms of the Twenty-fifth Amendment, Section 2^[23]
^ Gerald Ford succeeded to the presidency upon the resignation of Richard Nixon.^[67]

References

^ Rossiter (1962), p. 86.
^ Shugart (2004), pp. 633–636.
^ Epstein (2005), p. 318.
^ Matuz (2001), p. xxii.
^ Schaller & Williams (2003), p. 192.
^ McHugh & Mackowiak (2014), pp. 990–995.
^ Skau (1974), pp. 246–275.
^ Peabody & Gant (1999), p. 565.
^ Abbott (2005), pp. 627–644.
^ Dinnerstein (1962), pp. 447–451.
^ Guide to U.S. Elections (2010), p. 197; Nardulli (1992), p. 179.
^ LOC (2); Jamison (2014).
^ ^a ^b whitehouse.gov (g).
^ LOC; whitehouse.gov.
^ Guide to U.S. Elections (2010), pp. 257–258.
^ LOC.
^ McDonald (2000).
^ Guide to U.S. Elections (2010), pp. 197, 272; Nardulli (1992), p. 179.
^ Pencak (2000).
^ Guide to U.S. Elections (2010), p. 274.
^ Peterson (2000).
^ Banning (2000).
^ ^a ^b ^c Neale (2004), p. 22.
^ Ammon (2000).
^ Hargreaves (2000).
^ Guide to U.S. Elections (2010), p. 228; Goldman (1951), p. 159.
^ Guide to U.S. Elections (2010), p. 892; Houpt (2010), pp. 26, 280.
^ Remini (2000).
^ Cole (2000).
^ Gutzman (2000).
^ Shade (2000).
^ Abbott (2013), p. 23.
^ Cash (2018), pp. 34–36.
^ Rawley (2000).
^ Smith (2000).
^ Anbinder (2000).
^ Abbott (2005), p. 639.
^ Gara (2000).
^ Gienapp (2000).
^ McPherson (b) (2000).
^ McSeveney (1986), p. 139.
^ ^a ^b ^c Trefousse (2000).
^ McPherson (a) (2000).
^ Hoogenboom (2000).
^ Peskin (2000).
^ Reeves (2000).
^ Greenberger (2017), pp. 174–175.
^ ^a ^b Campbell (2000).
^ Spetter (2000).
^ Gould (a) (2000).
^ Harbaugh (2000).
^ Abbott (2005), pp. 639–640.
^ Gould (b) (2000).
^ Ambrosius (2000).
^ Hawley (2000).
^ McCoy (2000).
^ Senate.
^ Hoff (a) (2000).
^ Brinkley (2000).
^ Hamby (2000).
^ Abbott (2005), p. 636.
^ Ambrose (2000).
^ Parmet (2000).
^ Gardner (2000).
^ Abbott (2005), p. 633.
^ Hoff (b) (2000).
^ ^a ^b Greene (2013).
^ whitehouse.gov (a).
^ Schaller (2004).
^ whitehouse.gov (b).
^ whitehouse.gov (c).
^ whitehouse.gov (d).
^ whitehouse.gov (e).
^ whitehouse.gov (f).

Works cited

General

Guide to U.S. Elections. SAGE Publications. 2010. ISBN 978-1-60426-536-1.
"Chronological List of Presidents, First Ladies, and Vice Presidents of the United States". Library of Congress. Retrieved February 20, 2020.
"Presidents". whitehouse.gov. Retrieved May 14, 2022.

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Abbott, Philip (2013). "The First Bad President?: John Tyler". Bad Presidents. The Evolving American Presidency Series. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 23–42. doi:10.1057/9781137306593_2. ISBN 978-1-349-45513-3.
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Schaller, Michael (2004). "Reagan, Ronald Wilson". American National Biography. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.0700791. ISBN 978-0-19-860669-7. Retrieved May 14, 2022.
Shade, William G. (2000) [1999]. "Tyler, John". American National Biography. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.0401004. ISBN 978-0-19-860669-7. Retrieved May 14, 2022.
Smith, Elbert B. (2000) [1999]. "Taylor, Zachary". American National Biography. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.0400978. ISBN 978-0-19-860669-7. Retrieved May 14, 2022.
Spetter, Allan Burton (2000) [1999]. "Harrison, Benjamin". American National Biography. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.0500320. ISBN 978-0-19-860669-7. Retrieved May 14, 2022.
Trefousse, Hans L. (2000) [1999]. "Johnson, Andrew". American National Biography. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.0400566. ISBN 978-0-19-860669-7. Retrieved May 14, 2022.
"James Carter". whitehouse.gov. Retrieved May 14, 2022.
"George H. W. Bush". whitehouse.gov. Retrieved May 14, 2022.
"William J. Clinton". whitehouse.gov. Retrieved May 14, 2022.
"George W. Bush". whitehouse.gov. Retrieved May 14, 2022.
"Barack Obama". whitehouse.gov. Retrieved May 14, 2022.
"Donald Trump". whitehouse.gov. Retrieved May 14, 2022.
"Joe Biden". whitehouse.gov. Retrieved May 14, 2022.

Online sources

Jamison, Dennis (December 31, 2014). "George Washington' Views on Political Parties in America". The Washington Times. Retrieved February 20, 2020.
"Creating the United States: Formation of Political Parties". Library of Congress. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
"President's Swearing-in Ceremony". United States Senate. Retrieved July 31, 2022.

External links

Media related to President of the United States at Wikimedia Commons
Quotations related to List of presidents of the United States at Wikiquote

[14] Presidents are numbered according to uninterrupted periods served by the same person. For example, George Washington served two consecutive terms and is counted as the first president (not the first and second). Upon the resignation of 37th president, Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford became the 38th president even though he simply served out the remainder of Nixon's second term and was never elected to the presidency in his own right. Grover Cleveland was both the 22nd president and the 24th president because his two terms were not consecutive. A vice president who temporarily becomes acting president under the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the Constitution is not counted, because the president remains in office during such a period.

[16] Reflects the president's political party at the start of their presidency. Changes during their time in office are noted. Also reflects the vice president's political party unless otherwise noted beside the individual's name.

[21] Political parties had not been anticipated when the Constitution was drafted, nor did they exist at the time of the first presidential election in 1788–89. When they did develop, during Washington's first term, Adams joined the faction that became the Federalist Party. The elections of 1792 were the first ones in the United States that were contested on anything resembling a partisan basis.^[18]

[24] The 1796 presidential election was the first contested American presidential election and the only one in which a president and vice president were elected from opposing political parties. Federalist John Adams was elected president, and Jefferson of the Democratic-Republicans was elected vice president.^[20]

[diedintraterm-28] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o Died in office^[23]

[JQAdams-32] Early during John Quincy Adams' term, the Democratic-Republican Party dissolved; his allies in Congress and at the state level were referred to as "Adams' Men" during the Adams presidency. When Andrew Jackson became president in 1829, this group became the "Anti-Jackson" opposition, and organized themselves as the National Republican Party.^[26]

[34] John Calhoun, formerly a Democratic-Republican, founded the Nullifier Party in 1828 to oppose the Tariff of 1828 and advance the cause of states' rights, but was brought on as Andrew Jackson's running mate in the 1828 presidential election in an effort to broaden the democratic coalition led by Jackson.^[27]

[resignedintraterm-36] Resigned from office^[23]

[41] John Tyler succeeded to the presidency upon the death of William Henry Harrison.^[32]

[JTyler-43] John Tyler was elected vice president on the Whig Party ticket in 1840. His policy priorities as president soon proved to be opposed to most of the Whig agenda, and he was expelled from the party five months after assuming office.^[33]

[48] Millard Fillmore succeeded to the presidency upon the death of Zachary Taylor.^[37]

[ALincoln-53] When he ran for reelection in 1864, Republican Abraham Lincoln formed a bipartisan electoral alliance with War Democrats by selecting Democrat Andrew Johnson as his running mate, and running on the National Union Party ticket.^[41]

[55] Andrew Johnson succeeded to the presidency upon the death of Abraham Lincoln.^[42]

[AJohnson-56] While president, Andrew Johnson tried and failed to build a party of loyalists under the National Union banner. Near the end of his presidency, Johnson rejoined the Democratic Party.^[42]

[62] Chester A. Arthur succeeded to the presidency upon the death of James A. Garfield.^[47]

[68] Theodore Roosevelt succeeded to the presidency upon the death of William McKinley.^[52]

[74] Calvin Coolidge succeeded to the presidency upon the death of Warren G. Harding.^[57]

[79] Harry S. Truman succeeded to the presidency upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt.^[61]

[84] Lyndon B. Johnson succeeded to the presidency upon the death of John F. Kennedy.^[65]

[VP25th-86] Appointed as vice president under terms of the Twenty-fifth Amendment, Section 2^[23]

[88] Gerald Ford succeeded to the presidency upon the resignation of Richard Nixon.^[67]

[FOOTNOTERossiter196286-1] Rossiter (1962), p. 86.

[FOOTNOTEShugart2004633–636-2] Shugart (2004), pp. 633–636.

[FOOTNOTEEpstein2005318-3] Epstein (2005), p. 318.

[FOOTNOTEMatuz2001xxii-4] Matuz (2001), p. xxii.

[FOOTNOTESchallerWilliams2003192-5] Schaller & Williams (2003), p. 192.

[FOOTNOTEMcHughMackowiak2014990–995-6] McHugh & Mackowiak (2014), pp. 990–995.

[FOOTNOTESkau1974246–275-7] Skau (1974), pp. 246–275.

[FOOTNOTEPeabodyGant1999565-8] Peabody & Gant (1999), p. 565.

[FOOTNOTEAbbott2005627–644-9] Abbott (2005), pp. 627–644.

[FOOTNOTEDinnerstein1962447–451-10] Dinnerstein (1962), pp. 447–451.

[FOOTNOTE''Guide_to_U.S._Elections''2010197Nardulli1992179-11] Guide to U.S. Elections (2010), p. 197; Nardulli (1992), p. 179.

[FOOTNOTELOC_(2)Jamison2014-12] LOC (2); Jamison (2014).

[FOOTNOTEwhitehouse.gov_(g)-13] whitehouse.gov (g).

[FOOTNOTELOCwhitehouse.gov-15] LOC; whitehouse.gov.

[FOOTNOTE''Guide_to_U.S._Elections''2010257–258-17] Guide to U.S. Elections (2010), pp. 257–258.

[FOOTNOTELOC-18] LOC.

[FOOTNOTEMcDonald2000-19] McDonald (2000).

[FOOTNOTE''Guide_to_U.S._Elections''2010197,_272Nardulli1992179-20] Guide to U.S. Elections (2010), pp. 197, 272; Nardulli (1992), p. 179.

[FOOTNOTEPencak2000-22] Pencak (2000).

[FOOTNOTE''Guide_to_U.S._Elections''2010274-23] Guide to U.S. Elections (2010), p. 274.

[FOOTNOTEPeterson2000-25] Peterson (2000).

[FOOTNOTEBanning2000-26] Banning (2000).

[FOOTNOTENeale200422-27] Neale (2004), p. 22.

[FOOTNOTEAmmon2000-29] Ammon (2000).

[FOOTNOTEHargreaves2000-30] Hargreaves (2000).

[FOOTNOTE''Guide_to_U.S._Elections''2010228Goldman1951159-31] Guide to U.S. Elections (2010), p. 228; Goldman (1951), p. 159.

[FOOTNOTE''Guide_to_U.S._Elections''2010892Houpt201026,_280-33] Guide to U.S. Elections (2010), p. 892; Houpt (2010), pp. 26, 280.

[FOOTNOTERemini2000-35] Remini (2000).

[FOOTNOTECole2000-37] Cole (2000).

[FOOTNOTEGutzman2000-38] Gutzman (2000).

[FOOTNOTEShade2000-39] Shade (2000).

[FOOTNOTEAbbott201323-40] Abbott (2013), p. 23.

[FOOTNOTECash201834–36-42] Cash (2018), pp. 34–36.

[FOOTNOTERawley2000-44] Rawley (2000).

[FOOTNOTESmith2000-45] Smith (2000).

[FOOTNOTEAnbinder2000-46] Anbinder (2000).

[FOOTNOTEAbbott2005639-47] Abbott (2005), p. 639.

[FOOTNOTEGara2000-49] Gara (2000).

[FOOTNOTEGienapp2000-50] Gienapp (2000).

[FOOTNOTEMcPherson_(b)2000-51] McPherson (b) (2000).

[FOOTNOTEMcSeveney1986139-52] McSeveney (1986), p. 139.

[FOOTNOTETrefousse2000-54] Trefousse (2000).

[FOOTNOTEMcPherson_(a)2000-57] McPherson (a) (2000).

[FOOTNOTEHoogenboom2000-58] Hoogenboom (2000).

[FOOTNOTEPeskin2000-59] Peskin (2000).

[FOOTNOTEReeves2000-60] Reeves (2000).

[FOOTNOTEGreenberger2017174–175-61] Greenberger (2017), pp. 174–175.

[FOOTNOTECampbell2000-63] Campbell (2000).

[FOOTNOTESpetter2000-64] Spetter (2000).

[FOOTNOTEGould_(a)2000-65] Gould (a) (2000).

[FOOTNOTEHarbaugh2000-66] Harbaugh (2000).

[FOOTNOTEAbbott2005639–640-67] Abbott (2005), pp. 639–640.

[FOOTNOTEGould_(b)2000-69] Gould (b) (2000).

[FOOTNOTEAmbrosius2000-70] Ambrosius (2000).

[FOOTNOTEHawley2000-71] Hawley (2000).

[FOOTNOTEMcCoy2000-72] McCoy (2000).

[FOOTNOTESenate-73] Senate.

[FOOTNOTEHoff_(a)2000-75] Hoff (a) (2000).

[FOOTNOTEBrinkley2000-76] Brinkley (2000).

[FOOTNOTEHamby2000-77] Hamby (2000).

[FOOTNOTEAbbott2005636-78] Abbott (2005), p. 636.

[FOOTNOTEAmbrose2000-80] Ambrose (2000).

[FOOTNOTEParmet2000-81] Parmet (2000).

[FOOTNOTEGardner2000-82] Gardner (2000).

[FOOTNOTEAbbott2005633-83] Abbott (2005), p. 633.

[FOOTNOTEHoff_(b)2000-85] Hoff (b) (2000).

[FOOTNOTEGreene2013-87] Greene (2013).

[FOOTNOTEwhitehouse.gov_(a)-89] whitehouse.gov (a).

[FOOTNOTESchaller2004-90] Schaller (2004).

[FOOTNOTEwhitehouse.gov_(b)-91] whitehouse.gov (b).

[FOOTNOTEwhitehouse.gov_(c)-92] whitehouse.gov (c).

[FOOTNOTEwhitehouse.gov_(d)-93] whitehouse.gov (d).

[FOOTNOTEwhitehouse.gov_(e)-94] whitehouse.gov (e).

[FOOTNOTEwhitehouse.gov_(f)-95] whitehouse.gov (f).

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List of presidents of the United States

Presidents

See also

Notes

References

Works cited

External links

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