Jōsei Toda

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Jōsei Toda
Toda in May 1951
2nd President of Soka Gakkai
In office 3 May 1951 - 2 April 1958
Preceded by	Tsunesaburō Makiguchi
Succeeded by	Daisaku Ikeda
Personal details
Born	(1900-02-11)11 February 1900 Kaga, Ishikawa Prefecture, Japan
Died	2 April 1958(1958-04-02) (aged 58) Surugadai Nihon University Hospital, Chiyoda, Tokyo, Japan
Resting place	Jozai-ji Temple, Minami-Ikebukuro, Toshima, Japan (1958–2000) Taiseki-ji Head Temple by Gojunoto Pagoda, (left frontside) Fujinomiya, Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan (since 2001–Present)
Alma mater	Chuo University

Jōsei Toda (戸田 城聖, Toda Jōsei, 11 February 1900 – 2 April 1958) was a teacher, businessman, and second president of Soka Gakkai from 1951 to 1958. He is the author of numerous books about education during the Showa era.

Toda was emprisoned for two years during World War II under violating the Peace Preservation Law and the charge of lèse-majesté.

Toda was born in 1900, the eleventh son of a fisherman's family in the coastal village of Shioya, in modern-day Kaga, Ishikawa, off the Sea of Japan. In 1904 his family moved to Hokkaido, settling in the fishing village of Atsuta. From the age of 15 he worked his way through school, earning certification first as a substitute primary school teacher at age 17 then, three years later, as a full-time primary school teacher. In 1920 he moved to Tokyo where he met Tsunesaburo Makiguchi, an elementary school principal, who was to become his mentor. He taught for Makiguchi until 1922, after which he opened a private school and tutored students preparing for their middle-school entrance exams.^[1][2]

Toda and his wife suffered the loss of a six-month old daughter in 1923 and his wife died two years later from tuberculosis. Toda contracted the same illness and was often ill.

His financial fortunes changed with the successful publication and reception of his arithmetic tutorial book.

After he began teaching in Yubari, young coalminers in the area would come to his home after work to discuss issues such as politics and history. It is documented that he also submitted an education reform proposal to the Ministry of Education containing ideas to improve the conditions of teachers as well as developing more capable school leaders. According to a diary entry in 1920, part of his reason for moving from Hokkaido to Tokyo was an ambition to become "a world citizen."^[3]

Toda's vivid personality stood in stark contrast to that of his mentor, Tsunesaburo Makiguchi, who was a scholar and pedagogue.^[4] Toda has been described as "a hard-sell pitchman for his faith--frank, vigorous, often rude, talkative.^[5] He had the ability to vividly and strongly articulate the ideas of Nichiren and Makiguchi.^[6]

Although Toda's work in education is best known through his editing and financing Makiguchi's System of Value-Creating Pedagogy, he was also active as a teacher and author.

Toda's first teaching assignment was at Mayachi Primary School, located in a remote section of Ubari, Hokkaido, a coal-mining town. He started working there in 1918 as a substitute teacher and a year later was appointed as a 6th grade teacher upon passing a certification exam. He quit suddenly in 1920 but remained in correspondence with his students for 15 years.^[7]

The most exhaustive treatment of Toda's educational ideas is by Shiohara.^{[8][page needed]} According to Shiohara, Toda derived a teaching method from his own research specifically geared to meet the needs of his Miyachi elementary school students, who came from disadvantaged backgrounds and suffered low grades.^[9]

Makiguchi hired Toda as a substitute teacher at Nishimachi Elementary School. Toda changed positions in order to keep working with Makiguchi when the latter was forcefully transferred to Mikasa Elementary School, a school for poorer students in Tokyo.

Rather than traveling with Makiguchi to Shirokane Elementary School when Makiguchi was forcefully transferred again, Toda opened an tutorial school called Jishu Gakkan where he applied value-creating pedagogy in an independent setting.^[10][11] Toda rented a vacant lot near Meguro Station and built a two-story facility which formally opened in 1924. Jishu Gakkan operated for two decades, earning a prominent reputation for its success rate in preparing pupils for secondary-level entrance examinations.

Makiguchi's major work, The System of Value-Creating Pedagogy, was published on November 18, 1930. This event marks the day the Soka Gakkai considers as its founding. Makiguchi parallels Toda's role in publishing this book to that of Christen Mikkelsen Kold who popularized the educational ideas of N. F. S. Grundtvig in Denmark. Toda helped Makiguchi to publish his major work, The System of Value-Creating Pedagogy, published in November 1930. He's said to have turned an enormous volume of scribbled notes into a manuscript which then Makiguchi thoroughly reviewed. The System of Value-Creating Pedagogy was ultimately published by Fuzanbo.

Toda was active in creating a prominent group of 28 supporters who endorsed The System of Value-Creating Pedagogy including Tsuyoshi Inukai, who was to rise to become prime minister of Japan in 1931. The first volume of The System of Value-Creating Pedagogy included a calligraphy by Inukai as well as forewords by Inazo Nitobe, who at that time was one of the Under-Secretaries General of the League of Nations, sociologist Suketoshi Tanabe, and the folklorist Kunio Yanagita.^[12]

Toda's first published work, Katei Kyoikugaku Soron (An Anatomy of Home Education: Talking about entrance exams for middle level school, and turning our precious children into straight-A students), published in December 1929, was based on Makiguchi's work before the publishing of The System of Value-Creating Pedagogy. He forcefully denounced "entrance examination hell" and the predicament of students who are devalued because of their poor grades. He blames teachers who try to educate children uniformly, ignoring their unique interests and perspectives.^[13] In 1930 he published the Suirisiki Sido Sanjutsu (Guidebook to Mathematics Through Reasoning based on the principles of Value-Creating Pedagogy).^[14] This became a best seller selling over one million copies.^[15]

Toda also founded and edited an educational magazine dedicated to spreading and promoting Value-Creating Pedagogy entitled Shinshin Kyozai Kankyo (New Teaching Material: The Environment). The educational magazine continued as a series for more than six years, changing its title to New Collection of Teaching Materials, to New Teaching Materials, and, finally, to Educational Remodeling. In these research magazines he helped elementary school teachers to put Makiguchi's pedagogy into practice.^[16]

In addition to these editing and publishing assignments, Toda wrote two works, Guidelines for Teaching Mathematics and The Establishment of the System of Value-Creating Pedagogy, both based on the principles of value-creating education. He expanded his methodologies to other fields. He published four books for fifth and sixth graders entitled Guidance on Reading Through Reasoning. Although never published, he edited the book Guidance on the Three Subjects of Science, Geography and History, which applied the system of Value-Creating Pedagogy to these fields.^[17] His final pre-war contribution to education came in the January of 1940; Toda launched a magazine for learning, entitled Shogakusei Nihon (Elementary School Children Japan) which included correspondence materials. In each issue, he contributed a foreword and poured his passion into editing duties. He managed this despite strict restrictions imposed in the nation's system of militarism support.^[18]

Following Makiguchi, Toda began practicing Nichiren Shoshu Buddhism some time between 1928 and 1930, which brought a "spiritual dimension" to their work on Makiguchi's educational theories and underlying premise that each individual has potential.^[19] Apparently Toda was initially not as eager as Makiguchi in his new faith but, out of respect and gratitude, followed his mentor's direction and attributed his personal successes to Makiguchi's teachings of modern philosophy combined with lay Nichiren Buddhism.^[20][21]

It appears that Toda financed much of the operations of the Soka Kyoiku Gakkai singlehandedly.^[22] His pre-war net worth was more than ¥6,000,000,^[23] approximately 9,500,000USD in today's currency.^{[note 1]} Toda served as chairperson of the board of directors. His tutoring school had signage above the door bearing the name of the Soka Kyoiku Gakkai, perhaps indicating that it was used as the organization's convening place.^[22] He did cite his faith as the reason for his business success.^[15]

Although he provided financial support to the Soka Kyoiku Gakkai, Toda appeared to be more interested in his business activities. He expanded his holdings to control 17 companies. He enjoyed drinking parties with his employees and Soka Kyoiku Gakkai members.^[24]

Makiguchi and Toda were arrested and jailed by the government in 1943 on charges of blasphemy against the deified emperor (lèse-majesté) and violating the 1925 Peace Preservation Law. At first intended to suppress "thought crimes" of left-leaning groups, the law was amended in 1941 to include religious organizations. Toda and Makiguchi were among the approximate 80,000 people arrested for violating this law between 1925 and 1945. A total of 21 Soka Kyoiku Gakkai leaders were arrested and this effectively shuttered the Soka Kyoiku Gakkai organization.^[25] Makiguchi died in prison in 1944, and Toda was released just weeks before Japan's surrender in 1945.

Released from prison on July 3, 1945, his first task was to rebuild his businesses which he saw as the financial underpinning of the new organization. During the war he had accumulated more than ¥2,000,000 of debt. He attempted businesses starting with correspondence courses.^[23] The post-war business climate was tumultuous and racked by inflation and scarcity of materials. Many of his ventures met with failure.

News of his release began to spread and many prewar members came to consult with him to rebuild their personal faith. Toda began to sponsor study lectures on the Lotus Sutra and Nichren's writings and he presided over small group discussion meetings. On May 1st, Toda was appointed chair of the board of directors. The organization name was changed from Soka Kyoiku Gakkai to Soka Gakkai, publications resumed, a youth division was organized, and membership grew by about 200 members in 1946.^[26]

Early traces of Toda's "life philosophy" can be found in his first published textbook, An Anatomy of Home Education, as well as his most successful textbook, A Deductive Guide to Arithmetic.^[27]

Later Toda captured these realizations in the term "human revolution" which entailed transforming one's karma through Buddhist practice. This term was borrowed from a phrased used by Shigeru Nambara, president of the University of Tokyo, in 1947. The latter called for an inner transformation in the Japanese people to enable the success of occupation policies geared for social and political revolution. Toda used this term as the title of his autobiography published in 1957.

After his release, Toda lectured and wrote extensively about his realizations, now calling them a "life force philosophy" (also translated as "philosophy of life") ("seimeiron"). As McLaughlin concludes: "When Toda emerged from prison half a year later, he was driven by obligation to the memory of Makiguchi and by a sense of mission confirmed by his vision as a direct connection to Nichiren, to the primordial Buddha Śākyamuni, and to the eternal dharma."^[28]

According to McLaughlin, upon his 1951 inauguration and declaration of "The Great Shakubuku March," his first priority was quickly publishing doctrinal study materials.^[29] In preparation, he shifted the contents of his study lectures from explanations on the Lotus Sutra to studies on Nichiren's writings. He also created a Study Department consisting of 24 leading students who also gave local lectures.^[30]

The first product of the Study Department was Shakubuku kyoten (The Shakubuku Manual), published on November 18, 1951, which served to instruct members on how it exceeded other belief systems, and Makiguchi's theory of value. It spelled out the benefits of proselytizing and also provided detailed guidance about how to proselytize under different circumstances.^[31] The manual underwent eight editions and 39 printings.

The second project Toda undertook was the collection of the extant writings of Nichiren. Throughout its 700-year history, Nichiren Shoshu, although claiming it was the orthodox teaching of Nichiren, had not produced its own canon of Nichiren's writings and had to rely on collections produced by other sects. Often these collections omitted writings of Nichiren the sect deemed as essential, such as the Ongi Kuden (The Record of the Orally Transmitted Teachings). Toda offered to sponsor a definitive publication of Nichiren's writings based on the beliefs of Nichiren Shoshu. The work was completed in less than a year by members of the Study Department under the supervision of Nichiko Hori, the retired 59th high priest of Nichiren Shoshu.^[32] The resulting one-volume compilation, Shimpen Nichiren Daishonin gosho zenshu (New Edition of the Complete Writings of Nichiren Daishonin), was published on April 28, 1952, to commemorate the 700th anniversary of Nichiren's proclamation of his teachings in 1253, and remains the Soka Gakkai's most important source for its Nichiren Buddhist practice.^[33]

Soon after his inauguration, Toda created a section called the "Young Men's Division" on July 11, 1951. Its inaugural meeting consisted of 187 members who were divided into four "corps." Among the attendees was Daisaku Ikeda who was to become Toda's successor.

The aggressive propagation style of the Youth Division, which also employed military-sounding organizational terms including "corps commander" and "staff office," drew increasingly alarmist press coverage. In addition to propagating the religion to neighbors, Youth Division members challenged other sects to religious debates.

To the people of the tumultuous post-war period, Toda used language that was optimistic and focused on progress. He spoke in an intuitive rather than esoteric way, for example referring to the Gohonzon as "a happiness-producing machine." He spoke to the real problems members were facing such as economic woes, illness, and family discord, stressing the fundamentals of chanting daimoku and conversion.^[34]

Scholars have put forth different theories to account for Toda's success in building the Soka Gakkai. The media have pointed to aggressive propagation which sometimes resulted in violent removal of other religious artifacts from the homes of new members.^[35]

Other scholars point to the success in finding a willing and sympathetic substratum of society to serve as its base. Toda made repeated references to "the poor and the sick," making it evident that his propagation campaign was aimed at such people and, Murata concludes, "evidently, for many of them, their new faith worked."^[36] Media impressions also portrayed the Soka Gakkai as "a conglomeration of lower social elements —the working class, the less educated, the low in status."^[37] According to Dower, after the war the Japanese population displayed a "kyodatsu condition," a mass state of personal and collective disorientation and depression^[38] characterized by war-weariness, sickness, malnutrition, numbness, and despair as many people poured into cities in search of work and food.^[39] To these people Toda's reconceptualization of a Buddha with life force and his focus on Buddhism as a transformative force in culture and politics had appeal which resulted in rapid growth in the early 1950s.^[40][41]

White, on the other hand, recognizes the unique personality of Toda and its effect on youth: to them he was "the great master, the transmitter of the teachings, the commander and guide."^[42]

Addressing an assembly of 50,000 Soka Gakkai youth members on September 8, 1957, Toda issued a declaration for abolishing nuclear weapons as his will to future generations. At little more than a page of text, it was a succinct statement to the effect that there is neither victor nor humanity in any nuclear confrontation, overturning the Cold War logic of nuclear deterrence and its underlying denial that "we, the citizens of the world, have an inviolable right to live."^[43] This "Toda Declaration", proclaiming nuclear weapons to be "the ultimate evil of mankind, our numbed and remorseless readiness to deprive others of their inviolable right to live," remains the guiding principle of the Soka Gakkai peace movement.^{[44][page needed]}

Toda adopted an aggressive method of proselytizing, based on shakubuku (折伏), "as an 'active' way to bring the 'true faith' to all in the shortest possible time,"^[45] or a method described as "to criticize and to convince".^[46] It resulted in widespread criticism in the popular press and also by other Buddhist sects.^{[47][page needed][48][49]}

Toda's relationship with Nichiren Shoshu went through many ups and downs throughout his Soka Gakkai presidency.

Toda began his presidency with a determination to build closer cooperation with Nichiren Shoshu even though his appraisal of the school was at times critical. He often spoke of "bad priests" and his wartime experiences led him to conclude that his faith was stronger than that of some of the priests.^[50] On May 12, 1951, Toda requested from High Priest Nissho a special Gohonzon for attaining the organization's goal of propagation^[51] which was bestowed on May 20, 1951, and enshrined in the Soka Gakkai headquarters. On November 18, 2013, this Gohonzon was moved and enshrined at the newly constructed "Hall of the Great Vow" near the Soka Gakkai's headquarters in Tokyo; members from around the world visit and chant to this Gohonzon.

Providing context to the prewar situation, Montgomery explains: "During the Pacific War, most religions supported the militaristic policies of the Japanese government. While some religions did so in order to avoid political oppression, it seems that in the end most religions in Japan became permeated with the ultranationalistic spirit and supported the war effort rather voluntarily. In particular, the Nichiren tradition of Buddhism produced thinkers such as Chigaku Tanaka or Jimon Ogasawara, who, drawing on the political aspects of Nichiren's teaching, created ultranationalist ideologies legitimizing Japanese military policies of expansionism and colonization. These ideologies were then adopted by many Japanese religions. Reiyukai, which, through schismatic movements, produced many New Religions, such as Rissho Koseikai, was one of those religions which embraced Tanaka's ideology and, thus, avoided wartime oppression." Toda held that Ogasawara was primarily responsible for the government repression of the Soka Kyoiku Gakkai, his and Makiguchi's imprisonment, and, ultimately, Makiguchi's death.^[52] In 1942 Ogasawara was expelled from Nichiren Shoshu.

One incident occurred in 1952 which tarnished the reputation of the young Soka Gakkai movement. On the eve of April 28, 1952, a special commemorative event was held at the head temple to honor the 700th anniversary of Nichiren's declaration of his school with 4,000 Soka Gakkai members in attendance.^[53] As it turns out, Ogasawara had been secretly readmitted to the priesthood without the knowledge of the Soka Gakkai and was present at the event.^[54] When Ogasawara's presence was discovered, a group of 47 young men, with the participation of Toda and Ikeda, confronted him and demanded an apology for his wartime actions. Holte conjectures that 47 youth were chosen to draw a parallel to the Japanese tale of the Forty-seven Ronin.^[55][56] During this confrontation Ogasawara kicked Toda and Toda struck him twice. Ogasawara refused to apologize for his actions during the war or recant his doctrines.

The young men then seized Ogasawara, tore off his priestly robe, and forcibly carried him to Makiguchi's grave with a placard inscribed "Tanuki Bozu" (Raccoon Monk)^{[note 2]} placed on him. Under duress he signed a letter of apology at the gravesite. Ogasawara filed a complaint with the authorities against Soka Gakkai for assault and battery and later a complaint with the high priest. After Toda's apology, and with Ogasawara's lawsuit against Nissho, public sentiment turned against him and he withdrew both complaints.^[55]

Additional accounts of the incident provide more details. Brannen notes that Toda was temporarily banned from entering the temple.^[57] Shimada informs that though no legal action was taken, this incident helped establish a public view of the organization as a violent cult,^{[58][need quotation to verify]} a reputation which has abated over the years.^[59] The Soka Gakkai has never denied the factual events of the story but has provided its own narrative about the incident. Ikeda gives an almost 40-page explanation of the incident in The Human Revolution, his fictionalized biography of Toda.^[60]

Several months later, in November 1952, Nissho, the high priest of Taiseki-ji, reprimanded Toda for the April 27th incident. Toda responded with an article entitled "Apology" printed in the Soka Gakkai's newspaper.^[61] In May 1955, Ogasawara issued a pamphlet in which he repented his indiscretion in having had the conflict with the Soka Gakkai.^[62]

Toda died on 2 April 1958, while the funeral was held at his home and the coffin was afterwards carried to the Nichiren Shōshū Jozai-ji temple in Ikebukuro, where he was buried.^[63] Prime Minister Nobusuke Kishi and the Education Minister Matsunaga^{[note 3]} attended the Soka Gakkai funeral held in Tokyo on April 20, where 250,000 members from Japan and overseas gathered.^[64][65]

Toda's life is chronicled in two films by Japanese film director Toshio Masuda, the 1973 film The Human Revolution (Ningen Kakumei)^[66] and a 1976 sequel, The Human Revolution II (Zoku Ningen Kakumei),^[67] both starring and produced by Toho.

• Josei Toda Website: Reviving Buddhism in Today's World
• Lives of the Founding Presidents
• Toda Peace Institute's History