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Ouyi Zhixu
Ouyi Zhixu (蕅益智旭, pinyin: Ǒuyì Zhìxù; 1599–1655) was a Chinese Buddhist monk and scholar in 17th century China. He is considered a patriarch of the Chinese Pure Land School, a Chan master, as well as a great exponent of Tiantai Buddhism.[1][2][3] He was also one of the Four Eminent Monks of the Wanli Era, after Yunqi Zhuhong (1535–1615), Hanshan Deqing (1546–1623), and Daguan Zhenke (1543–1604).[4][5] Zhixu is well known for his non-sectarian and syncretic writings, which draw on various traditions like Tiantai, Pure Land, Yogacara, and Chan, and also engage with Confucian, Daoist and Jesuit sources.[4][6] LifeOuyi was a native of Suzhou, Jiangsu province (South Zhili).[7][8] He was initially a student of Confucianism and rejected Buddhism, writing various anti-Buddhist tracts.[9] However, after reading the works of Yunqi Zhuhong, he changed his mind and burned his old writings.[7] When he was 19, his father died and Zhixu devoted himself completely to Buddhism, studying the sutras and practicing meditation.[7] At the age of 24, he became a monk at Yunqi temple under Master Khan Xueling, a disciple of Hanshan Deqing.[7][8] During this 20s he studied Yogachara, practiced Chan based on the Shurangama Sutra, and he also experienced a great awakening during Chan meditation.[10][7] After his mother died when he was 28, he experienced a spiritual crisis and turned to the Pure Land practice of nianfo (reciting the Buddha's name).[10] When he was 31, he drew lots to determine whether he should write a commentary on the Sutra of Brahma's Net based on Tiantai, Yogacara, Huayan or “a school of his own” (zili). He drew the lot for Tiantai.[11] According to Foulks, his use of lots (rather than lineage ties or doctrinal reasons) for writing from a specific Buddhist tradition suggests that he saw these schools of thought as "not only compatible but also interchangeable."[11] In his 30s he studied the Tiantai school extensively, writing many commentaries and essays on Buddhist sutras.[7] He became deeply interested in mantrayana practice in his 30s, particularly the mantra of Kṣitigarbha.[2] Ouyi also became a public teacher during this time, writing and lecturing extensively.[2] When he was 37 Ouyi experienced various bouts of illness which continued throughout the rest of his life. Over time, these experiences led him to shift his focus to Pure Land Buddhist practice.[12] At the age of 56, he underwent serious illness, after which he devoted himself almost entirely to Pure Land practice.[13] In his Preface to the Pure Land Repentance, Zhixu explains how in his later years he turned to Pure Land practice:
Ouyi died in 1656, at fifty-seven.[13] InfluenceOne of Ouyi's main temples of residence was Lingfeng Temple (靈峯寺), located in Anji county, Zhejiang.[15] While Ouyi had previously written in his will that he wanted his remains to be burned and scattered in rivers as food for animals, his followers kept some of his bones as relics and placed them in a stupa at Lingfeng temple.[16] Today, this temple has been renovated, and it continues to celebrate its ties to master Ouyi. In 2007, a new reliquary courtyard and memorial hall for Ouyi were constructed.[15] Ouyi Zhixu was very influential on Chinese Pure Land Buddhism. Important Pure Land Buddhist figures like Yinguang and Jingkong relied on his Commentary to the Amitabha Sutra and saw it as the definitive commentary to this sutra.[17] In the writings of Gukun 古崑 (fl. 1855-d. 1892), Ouyi was raised to the status of a patriarch of Pure Land Buddhism, and this status was also promoted by Yinguang.[17] Ouyi Zhixu's work was influential on many later Chinese Buddhists including modern reformists like Taixu (1889–1947), Yinshun, and Hongyi (1880–1942).[18] The modern Chinese Buddhist teacher Sheng Yen (1930–2009) wrote his doctoral dissertation on Ouyi, and considered Ouyi to be one of the greatest modern Buddhist figures (alongside Taixu, Ouyang Jingwu, and Yinshun).[18][19] His prolific writings and popularity with scholars made Ouyi one of the “four great eminent monks of the late Ming period" 明末四大高僧”.[17] Teaching Ouyi was an eclectic author who wrote on many Chinese Buddhist doctrines and methods. His numerous works cover Pure Land practice, bodhisattva precepts, Tiantai doctrine and practice, Chan meditation (relying on the Śūraṅgama Sūtra), repentance rituals, Dizang devotion, Consciousness-only philosophy and meditation as well as Chinese Esoteric Buddhism.[20][21] Ouyi was well versed in the different Buddhist traditions of China, and according to his autobiography, he saw himself as being part of an inclusive tradition that included diverse Buddhisms such as Tiantai, Chan, Vinaya, and Pure Land.[22] He had a non-sectarian view of the various forms of Buddhism, seeing them all as skillful means (upaya) for sentient beings with different potentials and circumstances.[13] Furthermore, he saw the various elements of Chinese Mahayana as being harmonious and inseparable:
Numerous scholars see Ouyi as being affiliated with the Tiantai school. This is because his works show a deep influence from Tiantai ideas and doctrinal schemas, including the three truths, three contemplations, four teachings and so on.[24] However, other scholars refuse to pin him down to a single tradition, pointing to other influences in Ouyi's writings, including Vinaya, Chan and Pure Land ideas.[24] Scholars like Beverley Foulks have argued that Ouyi ultimately did not consider himself to be a promoter of a single tradition in a sectarian sense, but instead should be seen as someone who saw his project as one “harmonizing the traditions” (zhuzong ronghe) and transcending specific sectarian distinctions.[25] Throughout his life, he studied and practiced multiple Chinese lineages, including Chan, Vinaya, Tiantai and Pure Land.[25] The metaphysical foundation of Zhixu's Buddhist philosophy is the theory of "principle and nature" (理体), which is often expressed through varying terms such as "mind and nature" (心性), or "mind and body" (心体). These terms are used interchangeably to describe the fundamental principle that underlies all phenomena. This is the buddha-nature, the "body" of all dharmas, which is neither "empty" nor "not empty". It is beyond all descriptions and negations, and yet it is the source of all phenomena.[24] The basic source of this metaphysical theory is found in key Mahayana sources such as the Awakening of Faith, Śūraṅgama Sutra and the Lankavatara Sutra, both of which were commented upon by Ouyi. Pure Land teaching
As with other Ming authors on Pure Land at the time, Ouyi Zhixu defended the view that Pure Land practice worked through a symbiotic combination of the "other power" of the Buddha Amitabha with the "self power" of a person's Buddhist practice.[7] This symbiosis was called “sympathetic resonance” (ganying 感應).[22] For Ouyi, this resonance is grounded in the classic Chinese Buddhist metaphysical view of Buddhahood as a holistic and harmonious ultimate reality. In his Commentary on the Amitābha-sūtra, Ouyi explains the Pure Land teaching by relying on the philosophy of the Awakening of Faith and on the Yogacara mind-only (cittamatra) school. According to Ouyi's commentary, there is only one ultimate reality: the Dharmakaya, or Buddha-Mind, also known as the One Mind. Everything is but a manifestation within the vast ocean of this One Mind, like waves, or ripples. This includes all worlds, Buddhas, sentient beings, times, places, and experiences across the entirety of existence. The One Mind perspective highlights our connection to the absolute while preserving the conventional realities.[26] Although the Buddha-Mind encompasses all that exists, each of us possesses Buddha-nature, and our personal minds are infused with the Buddha-Mind, even if we fail to recognize it. Ignorance, delusion, and karmic obscurations only veil our awareness of this true nature. When we attempt to grasp or approach the One Mind using our limited, individual minds, it is akin to trying to scoop up the ocean with a teacup. This is why the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas guide us toward awakening using special skillful means meant for our dualistic minds. Every authentic Buddhist teaching is a skillful means tailored to specific circumstances, aiming to lead beings to the realization of the One Mind. Though these teachings differ in form and application, they share a singular intent.[26] According to Ouyi, the best skillful means in our times for attaining the true Buddha Mind is to practice nianfo (buddha recollection):
This is because "the method of reciting the Buddha-name, applies to people of high, medium, and limited capacities. It encompasses both the level of phenomena, and the level of inner truth (noumenon), omitting nothing. It embraces both Zen Buddhism and Scriptural Buddhism, and leaves nothing out."[28] Ouyi also thinks this is the superior method because it is the most inclusive and accessible, "embracing people of all mentalities and the one that is easiest to practice."[29] Ouyi taught a threefold schema of nianfo (buddha recollection):[30]
Furthermore, Ouyi also writes that "the name of Amitabha is the inherently enlightened true nature of sentient beings, and reciting the name of Amitabha reveals this enlightenment."[31] For Ouyi, the other-power of Amitabha Buddha (which is also inherent in our own mind) infuses his name with the force to lead beings to the pure land. Due to this, when someone recites the name (even those with low spiritual faculties), they merge with the Buddha, even without making an effort to meditate ("without bothering with visualization or meditation").[32] Thus, Ouyi writes:
For Ouyi, reciting the Buddha's name or Buddha-remembrance (nianfo) must be coupled with faith and vows (to attain birth in Sukhavati) for the optimum practice. Thus, Ouyi writes: “Without faith, we are not sufficiently equipped to take vows. Without vows, we are not sufficiently equipped to guide our practice. Without the wondrous practice of reciting the Buddha-name, we are not sufficiently equipped to fulfill our vows and to bring our faith to fruition."[33] Ouyi writes that it is important to practice nianfo with a focused and undisturbed mind, as this will guarantee rebirth in the pure land.[34] However, he also held that even if our mind is scattered, reciting the name still plants wholesome seeds in the mind, due to the Buddha's mysterious power and compassion towards all:[35]
His moderate position is also evident in his understanding of how meditation (chan), doctrine (jiao) and precepts (lü) are all important and complementary elements of Buddhist practice.[7] Master Ouyi also explains how the ultimate principle (li, dharmakaya) is unified with conventional phenomena (shi) and thus, how the view of the pure land as the absolute reality is in perfect harmony with the view of the pure land as another realm one is reborn into after death:[37][38]
Repentance, precepts and mantraOuyi was actively involved in Tiantai repentance rituals. He wrote three works on repentance rites from a Tiantai perspective and practiced these rites extensively. This is because he was concerned that his past slandering of Buddhism (when he was a Confucian in his youth) had left a deep karmic imprint.[40] Ouyi practices various Tiantai repentance rituals throughout his life, but he performed Zunshi’s Amitābha repentance (Mituo chanfa) more often than the others.[41] Ouyi was also deeply interested in Buddhist precepts and the rituals for conferring precepts. His works discuss the Tiantai concept of “precept-essence” (jie ti, 戒體) and how to maintain this essence pure. For Ouyi, maintaining ethical precepts remained a necessary aspect of the path, even if one relies on the Buddha's response power.[42] Ouyi was also devoted to Dizang and his dhāraṇī. Dizang (Kṣitigarbha) was a bodhisattva known for saving people from hell and other bad rebirths and for having the power to transform bad karma.[40] Zhixu's interest in Chinese Esoteric Buddhism also extended to the Śūraṅgama Mantra, which he greatly respected. In his Zong Lun, Ouyi promotes the extensive recitation of this mantra, which he held would lead to samadhi and insight.[43] Along with these mantras, he also promoted the Amitābha Pure Land Mantra.[43] ChanOuyi's Chan teaching has been seen by some scholars as an alternative tradition to the Linji school which was the dominant tradition during the Ming. Shengyen calls this Tathāgata Chan (rulai chan). Unlike the Linji teaching of gong’an (Jpn: kōan) practice, Ouyi's Chan method relied on the Śūraṃgama Sutra to understand Chan and attain enlightenment. His Chan is guided by figures like Yongming Yanshou (904–975) and Zibo Zhenke (1543–1603) and was practiced together with Pure Land Buddhism.[44] On other Chinese religionsOuyi promoted a non-sectarian worldview that exemplified the “harmonization of traditions” (zhuzong ronghe) and the “unity of the Three Teachings” (三教合一 sanjiao heyi), i.e. Buddhism, Confucianism and Daoism.[11] Ouyi also had a deep knowledge of Confucianism and in some of his writings he sought to integrate Buddhism and Confucianism, which he saw as deeply compatible and complementary.[5] Ouyi held that "the teachings of the Buddha and the sages are doing nothing else but urging us to exert our minds to the utmost."[8] For Ouyi, the profound meaning and ultimate source of Buddhism and Confucianism were the same true original mind.[45] He also saw Buddhism and Confucianism as approaching the same truth in different ways, writing:
Ouyi wrote a Chan interpretation of the Book of Changes (Yijing) and he said that this was "nothing else but an introduction of Chan into Confucianism, in order to entice Confucians to understand Chan".[45] Ouyi went as far as to write that "Confucianism, Daoism, Chan, Vinaya, Doctrinal Buddhism were nothing but yellow leaves and empty fists", meaning that they were all just skillful means (upaya) that could be used to attain the One Principle (yili).[46] In his autobiography, Ouyi describes himself as "a follower of the eight negations". This term can have different connotations, including eight negations found in Madhyamaka sources ("neither arising nor ceasing, neither eternal nor impermanent, neither unitary nor different, neither coming nor going"). However, Ouyi also writes that this term can mean that he does not follow or study "Confucianism, Chan, Vinaya, and the Teachings." Foulks writes that this means Ouyi was "refusing to be categorized as Confucian or Buddhist (in any particular tradition), Ouyi instead espouses the most general religious identification of “follower” or “a person on the path” (daoren)".[47] According to Foulks, in his autobiography, Ouyi defends a "broad, nonsectarian religiosity" instead of focusing on any specific Buddhist tradition or seeing himself as part of any "school" (zong).[6] Critique of ChristianityOuyi wrote the Bixie ji (Collected Essays Refuting Heterodoxy) critiquing Christianity and defending Buddhism against the attacks of Christian Jesuit missionaries like Michele Ruggieri (1543–1607) and Matteo Ricci (1552–1610).[7] He especially focused on critiquing Christian theodicy and Christian ethics.[7][1] According to Beverley Foulks, Zhixu "objects to the way Jesuits invest God with qualities of love, hatred, and the power to punish. He criticizes the notion that God would create humans to be both good and evil, and finally he questions why God would allow Lucifer to tempt humans towards evil."[48] Zhixu generally writes his critiques of Christianity from a Confucian perspective, drawing on Confucian works instead of citing Buddhist sources.[1] According to Foulks, Zhixu was also concerned with the ethical implications of Christianity, since he saw benevolence (ren 仁) as deriving from humans and their self-cultivation, but "if humans receive their nature from an external source, they can absolve themselves of ethical responsibility; moreover, since Jesuits disavow reincarnation, they further curtail the ability of humans to morally better themselves and render them entirely dependent on God or Jesus to absolve them of their wrongdoings."[1] Works Master Ouyi's oeuvre amounts to around seventy-five works.[13] This include treatises and commentaries on the teachings and texts of Mahayana Sutras, Chan, Tiantai, Yogacara, Vinaya, Bodhisattva Precepts, Pure Land as well as on Confucian classics. The Chinese Buddhist Book Bureau has collected all of his extant works into the Full Anthology of Master Ouyi (蕅益大师全集).[49] Some of his important works include:
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