Linguistic reconstructions can be obtained via comparison between the various Germanic languages, comparison with related words in other Indo-European languages, especially Celtic and Baltic, comparison with borrowings into neighbouring language families such as Uralic, or via a combination of those methods. This allows linguists to project some terms back to the Proto-Germanic period despite their attestation in only one Germanic language; for instance, *saidaz ('magic') is only attested in Old Norse seiðr, but has parallels in Proto-Celtic *soytos and Lithuanian saitas.
From Pre-Ger. *Ala-faþēr. Identical to PCelt. *Olo-(p)atīr (cf. Middle Irish Ollathair).[2]
An epithet meaning 'all-father', used as a byname of Óðinn in Old Norse. It can be compared with the Middle Irish Eochu Ollathair, commonly used for the Dagda.[1]
From the PIE stem *h2(e)wes- ('to shine, glow red'). Cognate with the Lithuanian deity Aušrinė, and further related to the PIE dawn-goddess *h₂éwsōs.[3]
A West Germanic spring goddess associated with a festival held in her name during the 'Easter-month', *Austro-mēnōþ, equivalent to modern 'April'.[3] The matronae Austriahenae, if Germanic, derive from the same stem.[4] The Old English and Old High German forms are the origin of the modern holiday names Easter and Ostern, respectively.[5] See Ēostre for further discussion.
Probably a compound of PGmc *auzom ('shiny, shiny liquid') and a derivate of *wanđuz ('rod, cane').[6][8] The PGmc form would therefore perhaps mean 'Light-Beam'[6][8]
Generally seen as a personification of the 'rising light' of the morning, possibly embodying the Morning Star (Venus).[8] See Aurvandill for further discussion.
From PGmc *balþaz ('brave'), which is identical to Lith. báltas ('white', also the name of a light-god), based on the semantic development from 'white' to 'shining' or 'strong' (man) > 'hero, lord, prince'.[10][11]
ON Baldr ('brave, defiant; lord, prince') and OHG Balder are close to OE bealdor ('prince, hero').[10][11] The OE theonym Bældæg likely means 'Shining Day', as suggested by his association with 'day' and by the name of the Lith. light-god Báltas.[12] See Baldr for further discussion.
Scholars have proposed a variety of figures in the ancient Germanic record as extensions of this motif. Tacitus (Germania), mentions twin deities, the Alcis (PGmc *alhiz ~ *algiz), who he compares to the Greek Dioscuri. The deities are generally seen as a reflex of the Proto-Indo-European Divine twins. Their name either means 'elk' or 'protector'.[16][17] Some scholars have speculated that it may be related to the z-rune ᛉ (algiz), although evidence is scarse.[17]
An epithet meaning 'Lord'/'Lady'.[20] Occurs as a theonym in Old Norse and, in a Christian context, in Old English. According to Kroonen, "both in form and meaning, fraiwa- ('seed') is reminiscent of Freyr 'fertility deity' < *frauja-. We may therefore consider the possibility that *fraiwa- was metathesized from *frawja-, a collective of some kind."[21] See *Fraujaz for further discussion.
From PGmc *frijaz ('free'), itself from PIE *priH-o- ('one's own, beloved').[22][23] In a clan-based societal system, the meaning 'free' arose from the meaning 'related' (cf. PGmc *frijōnan 'to love', *friþuz 'friendship, peace').[23]
Goddess, in most sources partner of *Wōđanaz. Source of *Frijjadag ('Frijjō-day; Friday').[24] See Frigg for further discussion.
Derived from PGmc *geutanan ('to pour'), or an ablaut variant of *gutaz ~ *gutōn ('Goth, Gut')[28]
A name for Odin.[27] The early Germanic form may mean 'pourer (of semen)', i.e. 'man'.[29]Rudolf Simek writes that as a mythical ancestor of the Goths (Gapt) and considered an ancestor in so many places he may have been the same as Odin in the Germanic peoples' common homeland in Scandinavia.[30] Also the name of the Geats.[26] See Gaut for further discussion.
Cognate with PCelt. *kaiko- ('one-eyed, blind in one eye') and, with a slightly different meaning, with PIt. *kaikos ('blind').[2]
Perhaps an epithet meaning 'One-Eyed', attested as a common noun in Gothic. ON Hárr, a byname of Óðinn, has been derived from an earlier Proto-Norse *Haiha-hariz/ʀ ('the One-eyed Hero').[31] According to scholar Adam Hyllested, "the Celtic god Lug closes one eye in his magic ritual, while in Germanic mythology being one-eyed is a key attribute of Óðinn".[2] See Hárr for further information.
According to De Vries, probably a chthonic deity.[34][33] The ON Hlóðyn was possibly borrowed from the West Germanic theonym Hludana around the 8th c. AD.[34] See Hludana for further discussion.
A mythical ancestor, progenitor of the Ingvaeōnes. See also the Latinized Proto-Germanic personal name Inguiomērus. Name of the ŋ-rune ᛝ.[37] See Yngvi for further discussion.
Possibly a compound of PGmc *Ingwina- (Ing-friends') and *frawja- ('Lord'). *Ingwina- is derived from the name Ing- (see *Ingwaz) attached to PGmc *winiz ('friend').[39] Together, these forms mean 'Lord of the Ing-friends'.[39] (See Ingaevones)
Meaning 'Man'.[40] Cognate with Sanskrit Mánu and Avestan *Manuš.[41]
Cosmogonical figure; son of *Twistō, divine ancestor of the West Germanic peoples (Tacitus). Name of the m-rune ᛗ (cf. man(n), maðr).[40] See Mannus and Indo-European cosmogony for further discussion.
Meaning 'Moon'.[44] From PIE *meh₁n-ōs ('moon; month'). The Germanic n-stem arose secondarily from the nom. *mēnō, which may regularly continue *meh₁n-ōt (cf. PGmc *mēnōþ-z 'month').[42][44]
Source of Late PGmc *Mēnandag ('Moon-day; Monday').[45] Personified as a deity, Máni ('Moon'), in Old Norse.
The original meaning of the theonym is contested. It may be related to the Irish word nert, meaning 'force' and 'power'. The name Njǫrðr may be related to Njǫrun, an Old Norse goddess name.[48][49]
PGmc *Sowel- > *Sōel- (gen. *Sunnōn) derives from the PIE word for 'sun', *séh₂uel, whose genitive form is *sh₂éns, sh₂unós.[53] *Sugelan is a variant of Sowelō that can be morphologically compared to PGmc *sweglaz ('sunlight').[50]
Meaning 'Sun'.[53] A goddess and personification of the Sun. The variant *Sugelan may have been the original name of the s-runeᛊ (cf. sigel, sugil), via taboo avoidance. The genitive form *Sunnōn is at the origin of OHG Sunne and Late PGmc *Sunnandag ('Sun-day'); it is also the predecessor to modern English Sun.[54] See Sól for further discussion.
From PIE *deywós ('celestial', hence a 'deity'), itself from *dyēus ('daylight sky god').[57]
A general epithet meaning 'god, deity' that eventually replaced the name of a specific deity whose original name is now lost. *Tīwaz was associated with the thing and equated with the Roman war god Mars through interpretatio germanica. Name of the t-rune (ᛏ).[58][57][59] Source of Late PGmc *Tīwasdag ('Tīwaz-day; Tuesday').[60] See Týr for further discussion
Etymologically 'Twofold' (i.e. 'Twin', 'Bisexual', or 'Hermaphrodite').[61][62][63] Related to PGmc *twistaz, which is structurally close to Sanskrit dviṣṭa- ('staying in two places, ambiguous').[64]
An epithet meaning 'of the thing'[65] Attached to Mars (*Tīwaz) in early West Germanic cultures (see interpretatio germanica and interpretatio romana); perhaps originally a god associated with law. Attested in Latin as Thingsus, and probably included in the name for 'Tuesday' in some Germanic languages.[66][65]
From the PIE root *(s)tenh₂- ('thunder'). Cognate with the Celt. thunder-god Taranis (< *Tonaros), and further related to the Latin epithet Tonans.[67]
Meaning 'Thunder'[55] According to Peter Jackson, the Celtic–Germanic theonym *Þun(a)raz~ *Tonaros may have emerged as the result of the fossilization of an original epithet or epiclesis of the PIE thunder-god *Perkwunos.[68] Source of Late PGmc *Þonaresdag ('Þunraz-day; Thursday').[69] See also below *melđunjaz, the name of *Þunraz's weapon. See Thor for further discussion.
Meaning 'Lord of Frenzy'.[74] From PGmc *wōđaz ('delirious, raging') attached to the suffix -naz ('master of'). The former is identical to PCelt. *wātis ('seer, sooth-sayer') and Lat. vātēs ('prophet, seer').[75][2]
Evidence points to a god strongly associated with ecstatic divination and wisdom. Compare the numerous Germanic cognates connoting 'violent agitation, mad rage, possession' with ON Óðr ('wit, sense, song, poetry'), OE wōð ('sound, voice, song'), and the other Indo-European cognates meaning 'seer, prophet'. Source of Late PGmc *Wōdanesdag ('Wōdanaz-day; Wednesday').[76] See Óðinn for further discussion.
From PIE *ul-tu- < *uel- ('to see'). Identical to Lat. vultus ('facial expression, appearance').[77][79]
Meaning 'Glory'.[79] Attested as owlþuþewaz ('servant of owlþuz') on the Thorsberg chape (3rd c. AD).[78] Cf. also Goth. wulþus ('glory'). OE wuldor ('glory') stems from PGmc *wuldraz.[79] See Ullr for further discussion.
Meaning 'Fate'.[81] From PGmc *werþanan ('to come about, happen, become').[80][81]
A concept comparable to fate personified as a female entity in Old Norse (a norn, a goddess-like being) and in Old English. See Urðr for further discussion.
Meaning '(a) deity'. From PIE *h₂ems-u- < *h₂ems- ('to give birth'). Identical to Hitt. ḫassu- ('king'), Skt. ásu- ('life, vital strength'), Av. ahu- ('lord'), or Venet. ahsu- ('cult image'). Further related to Skt ásura- and Av. ahura- ('god, lord').[87][88] Potentially connected to PGmc *ansaz 'beam' (see also Anthropomorphic wooden cult figurines of Central and Northern Europe).[87]
Name of the a-rune ᚨ. See Æsir for further discussion.
Uncertain etymology.[90] The West Germanic forms present some difficulty to resolve but the North Germanic and West Germanic forms are used explicitly as cognates (e.g. OE ides Scildinga and ON dís Skjǫldunga).[91]
A variety of goddess-like supernatural female entity. Variously rendered by translators into modern English as terms like 'goddess', '(noble, divine) lady', or 'fairy'.[92] The PGmc form may occur in the place name Idistaviso (perhaps PGmc *Idisiaviso 'plain of the Idisi') and may be further reflected in ON Iðavöllr if the location name is amended to *Ið[is]avöllr.[93] According to Jan de Vries, although the connection between the West Germanic and Old Norse forms remains controversial, the fact that ON dís goes back to Proto-Germanic is proved by the personal names Frank. Agedisus, Disibod, Aleman. Disi, Lomb. Tiso.[94] See dís and Idis (Germanic) and compare *wala-kuzjōn below.
OE gǽst, OFris gāst, OS gēst, ODu. gēst, OHG geist[101][102][103]
–
–
Meaning 'ghost, spirit, wrath'. From Pre-Ger.*ghoisdoz ('fury, anger'), which is comparable to Sanskrit héḍas ('anger') and Avestan zōižda- ('terrible, ugly').[102][103]
Although the word is only attested in the West Germanic languages, it appears to be of pre-Germanic formation.[103] See ghost for further discussion.
Meaning '(a) deity' and predecessor to modern English god. Unclear etymology. Traditionally derived from *ǵʰu-t(ó)- ('libated one') < *ǵʰeu- ('to pour'), although alternative connections with PIE *ǵʰeuH- ('to invoke'), with OCS gověti ('to revere'), or with Greek χυτὴ γαῖα ('burial mound') have also been proposed.[104][106]
The source of PGmc *guđ(a)-fuhtaz ('god-fearing'), *guđ(a)-lausaz ('god-less'), aƀa-guđaz ('godless, lit. off-god'), *guđ(a)-waƀjaz ('precious fabric, silk'), or *guđ(a)-hūsan (temple; if not a calque of Lat. domus Dei).[107]
From PIE *mor-eh₂, of unclear origin. Cognate with Slav. *morà ('nightly spirit, bad dream') and OIr. mor-rígain ('queen of bad dreams'; a goddess of the battlefield and female malicious entity). See also the Russian kiki-mora, a female house-spirit that spins at night.[110][109]
A malevolent female spirit associated with bad dreams (as in the second element of modern English night-mare). The image of a female ghost or malicious entity who tortures people by way of nightmares is apparently common to Slavic, Germanic and, possibly, Celtic.[111] Borrowed from Middle Dutch into Old Picard as mare > cauque-mare (attached to cauquier 'to press'; mod. Fr. cauchemar), which designated a 'witch' haunting bad dreams.[112] See Mare (folklore) for further discussion.
From PIE *nígʷ-ōs < *neigʷ- ('to wash').[113][114]
An entity associated with water, which probably also existed under the feminine form *nikwazjōn (cf. OHG nickessa).[114] See Nixie (folklore) for further discussion.
Identical to PCelt. *skāhslo- (cf. Old Irish scál ‘supernatural or superhuman being, phantom, giant, hero; the god Lug’, Middle Welsh yscaul ‘hero, champion, warrior').[95]
No clear etymology. Perhaps related to ON þyrja ('to rush'), ON þora ('to dare'), or Icel. þursi ('quarrel, anger, rage').[117][118]
One of a series of semantically related Proto-Germanic terms for a type of entity. Borrowed into early Finnish as Turisas, a war god and a sea monster.[118] See jötunn for further discussion.
Probably related to Greek ῥίον ('peak, headland').[119]
One of the Proto-Germanic terms semantically related to jötunn. Occurs also in OS wrisi-līk ('enormous, wrisi-like').[119] For further discussion, see jötunn.
Meaning 'chooser of the slain'. Compound of *walaz ('the slain') and *kuzjōn ('chooser' < PGmc *keusanan 'to trial, select').[120][121] See also OE wæl-cēasega, a name for 'raven' that literally means 'chooser of the slain'.[122]
A variety of goddess-like female entity. Compare *đīsō above.[120] See valkyrie for further discussion.
Meaning 'man-wolf' and predecessor to modern English werewolf. Probably a compound of *wiraz ('man') and *wulfaz ('wolf').[125][126] Alternately derived from *wazi-wulfaz ('wolf-clothed'), bringing the compound semantically in line with the Slavic name for 'werewolf', *vьlko-dlakь, literally 'wolf-haired'.[126]
The Norse branch underwent taboo modifications, with ON vargúlfr replacing *wiraz ('man') with vargr ('outlaw; wolf'), probably under the influence of Old French leus warous, which literally means 'wolf-werewolf'.[125][126][127]Old Frankish*werwolf is inferred from ONorm.garwa(l)f ~ garo(u)l.[128][127] The modern Norse forms varulv (Danish, Norwegian) and varulf (Swedish) were probably borrowed from MLG werwulf,[127] or else be derived from an unattested ON *varulfr, posited as the regular descendant form of PGmc *wira-wulfaz.[124] See werewolf for further discussion.
Probably from PIE *per-kwun-ih₂ ('wooded mountains', i.e. the realm of *Perkwunos). Cognate with PCelt. *ferkunyo > (H)ercynia.[132][133]
Cognate with or borrowed into Slav. as *per(g)ynja ('wooded hills').[132][133] Cf. also Goth. fairguni and OE firgen ('mountain').[131][132] See Perkwunos for further discussion.
From PGmc *helanan ('to conceal, hide').[134][136]
Precursor to modern English Hell, attested as an afterlife location throughout Germanic languages and personified as a female entity in Old Norse and Old English. See Hel (being) and Hel (location).
From the gen. *h₂ḱmnós of PIE *h₂eḱmon ('heavenly vault of stone'). Possibly cognate with PGmc *hamaraz ('hammer') via a metathesized stem *ḱ(e)h₂-m-r- (cf. Grk kamára 'vault').[137][140]
Compound of PGmc *hemenaz ('heaven') and *wangaz ('meadow').[137] The noun *wangaz stems from the PIE root *uongʰ-, denoting a 'field'.[142]
A term denoting an afterlife heavenly meadow. PGmc *wangaz occurs as a gloss for 'paradise' in Old Norse, Old English, and Gothic, implying an early Germanic concept of an afterlife field in the heaven.[141]Fólkvangr is an afterlife location associated with the goddess Freyja in Old Norse texts. See Fólkvangr and Neorxnawang.
A compound of WGmc *Austrōn (a female deity) and *mēnōþ ('month').
A West Germanic name for the 'month of *Austrōn', associated with a festival held around April and eventually displaced by the Christian Easter.[149] See Ēostre and Ēosturmōnaþ for further discussion.
From Pre-Ger. *elkyo-, attested in the Finnish loanwords elkiä ('mean, malicious') and ilkeä ('bad, mean, wicked'). Possibly related to Old Irish ol(c)c ('bad, evil').[2]
A compound of PGmc *harƀistaz ('autumn, harvest') and *mēnōþz ('month').[161]
Early Germanic name of the 'month of harvest'; roughly equivalent to modern 'August–November'.[161] Cf. also ODu. Aranmānōth ~ OHG Aranmānōd ('harvest month, August'), from another PGmc stem *azani- ('harvest').
From a PIE stem meld-n-, which may have originally designated Perkwunos' weapon. Cognate with Latv. milna (Pērkōns' hammer), OPrus. mealde ('lightning'), OCS mъldni ('lightning'), Welsh mellten ('bolt of lightning').[176]
Thor's hammer. See Mjǫllnir for further discussion.
From Pre-Ger. *saiþa-, which is cognate with Lith. saitas ('soothsaying, talisman') and PCelt. *soyto- ('magic').[181][182][96] Probably originally identical to PIE *soito- ('string, rope'), from *seh2i- ('to bind').[96]
See also the PGmc verb *sīdanan ('to work charms'; cf. ON síða) and OE -siden 'magic' (< *sidnō-).[181][182]
According to Vladimir Orel, derived from PGmc *saiwiz ~ *saiwaz ('sea, lake'), "probably because of a Germanic belief in souls born out of and returning to sacred lakes".[183]
Probably from a PGmc verb *skeldanan ~ *skadjanan ('to announce, reproach'; cf. ME scolden, OFri. skelda, ODu. sceldan, OHG sceltan).[184] Perhaps related to PCelt. *sketlo- ('story, tidings'; cf. OIr. scél 'saga, narrative', MWelsh chwedl 'traditional narrative, tidings').[185]
OHG skelto, MHG schelte mean 'blamer, criticizer, satirist'.[184]Middle Englishscāld was borrowed from ON skáld.[186][187] See skald for further discussion.
From Pre-Ger. dapno- < PIE *dh₂p-no- ('sacrificial meal'). Cognate with Lat. damnum ('harm, damage, loss'), MIr. dúan ('poem, song') and Arm. tawn ('feast').[190][191][192]
Cognate with Greek δεῖπνον ('meal') and Arm. tvar ('male sheep') < PIE *déip-r, gen. dip-n-ós.[194][195] According to some scholars, Goth. aibr should be emended to *tibr.[196][195]
Koch, John T. (2020). Celto-Germanic, Later Prehistory and Post-Proto-Indo-European vocabulary in the North and West. University of Wales Centre for Advanced Welsh and Celtic Studies. ISBN9781907029325.
Kroonen, Guus (2013). Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic. Brill. ISBN9789004183407.
Poirier, Joseph (2007). "The Names of the Months in Europe: Agricultural and Meteorological influences". European Review. 15 (2): 199–207. doi:10.1017/S106279870700021X. S2CID143383253.
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Australian television satirical comedy series The Chaser's War on EverythingThe Chaser's War on Everything season two intertitleGenreComedy, satireCreated byThe ChaserDirected byCraig Melville, Nathan Earl, Bradley J. Howard,[1] Mark Fitzgerald, Trent O'DonnellStarringAndrew HansenChas LicciardelloJulian MorrowCraig ReucasselChris TaylorCharles Firth (until 2007)Country of originAustraliaNo. of seasons3No. of episodes58 (list of episodes)ProductionExecutive producerJulian MorrowProducers…
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Ifa IsfansyahIfa pada tahun 2018Lahir16 Desember 1979 (umur 44)Yogyakarta, IndonesiaPendidikanSMA Negeri 6 YogyakartaAlmamaterInstitut Seni Indonesia YogyakartaIm Kwon Taek College of Film & Performing ArtsPekerjaanSutradarapenulis skenarioproduser filmSuami/istriKamila Andini (m. 2012)KerabatGarin Nugroho (mertua)Penghargaan Piala Citra untuk Sutradara Terbaik2011 Sang Penari Piala Citra untuk Film Cerita Panjang Terbaik 2022 Nana Ifa Isfansyah (lahir 16 …
Ags. Arya DipayanaLahirAgung Setiadji(1961-04-29)29 April 1961Tulungagung, Jawa Timur, IndonesiaMeninggal1 Maret 2011(2011-03-01) (umur 49)Jakarta, IndonesiaPekerjaanSenimanKarya terkenal Musikalisasi puisi Aku Ingin Dengan Menyebut Nama Allah Agung Setiadji, dikenal secara profesional sebagai Ags. Arya Dipayana (29 April 1961 – 1 Maret 2011) adalah seniman Indonesia. Namanya dikenal sebagai seniman teater, penyair sekaligus penulis cerita pendek yang mempublikasikan karyany…
Sebuah Boeing 747-400 milik Virgin Atlantic Airways, salah satu maskapai penerbangan terbesar UK. Sebuah maskapai penerbangan adalah sebuah organisasi yang menyediakan jasa penerbangan bagi penumpang atau barang. Mereka menyewa atau memiliki pesawat terbang untuk menyediakan jasa tersebut dan dapat membentuk kerja sama atau aliansi dengan maskapai lainnya untuk keuntungan bersama. Istilah maskapai berasal dari bahasa Belanda maatschappij yang berarti perusahaan. Lihat pula Daftar maskapai penerb…
Third most important fish in aquaculture after carp and salmon TilapiaAquaculture production of tilapia by speciesin million tonnes as reported by the FAO, 1950–2009[1]Aquaculture production of tilapia by countryin million tonnes as reported by the FAO, 1950–2009[1] Tilapia has become the third most important fish in aquaculture after carp and salmon; worldwide production exceeded 1.5 million metric tons (1.5×10^6 long tons) in 2002[2] and increases annually. Be…
Charles G. Dawes Wakil Presiden Amerika Serikat 30Masa jabatan4 Maret 1925 – 4 Maret 1929PresidenCalvin Coolidge PendahuluCalvin CoolidgePenggantiCharles Curtis Informasi pribadiLahir27 Maret 1865Marietta, Washington County, OhioMeninggal23 April 1951 (umur 86)Evanston, IllinoisKebangsaanAmerikaPartai politikPartai RepublikanSuami/istriCaro Blymyer DawesSunting kotak info • L • B Charles Gates Dawes lahir di Marietta, Washington County, Ohio, pada 27 Maret 1865. ia l…
Halaman ini berisi artikel tentang istilah matematika. Untuk kegunaan lain, lihat Monomorfik (disambiguasi) dan Polimorfisme (disambiguasi). Dalam konteks aljabar abstrak atau aljabar universal, monomorfisme adalah injeksi homomorfisme. Sebuah monomorfisme dari X dengan Y sering dilambangkan dengan notasi X ↪ Y. Dalam pengaturan yang lebih umum dari teori kategori, monomorfisme (juga disebut morfisme monik atau mono) adalah pembatal-kiri morphism. Artinya, anak panah f : X → Y sepe…