Timeline of the Golden Horde

This is a timeline of events involving the Golden Horde (1242–1502), from 1459 also known as the Great Horde.

13th century

For pre-1242 events involving Mongols in Europe, see Timeline of the Mongol Empire § 13th century

1240s

Year	Date	Event
1242		Mongol invasion of Europe: Mongol Empire forces the Second Bulgarian Empire to pay tribute^[1]
	spring	Mongol invasion of Europe: Mongol forces retreat after receiving news of Ögedei Khan's death; Batu Khan stays at the Volga River and his brother Orda Khan returns to Mongolia^[2]
		The Golden Horde stretches from the Chu River to the Danube^[3]
		Yaroslav II of Vladimir visits Sarai and submits to Batu Khan for confirmation of his office^[4]
1245	December	Daniel of Galicia visits Sarai and submits to Batu Khan for confirmation of his office^[5]
1245		Golden Horde carries out census of Ruthenian lands^[6]
1246	20 September	Michael of Chernigov visits Sarai, but refuses to (fully) submit to Batu Khan and is executed^[5]
1246		Yaroslav II of Vladimir is poisoned by Oghul Qaimish in Karakorum and dies^[4]
1248	20 April	Güyük Khan dies on his way to confront Batu Khan and his wife Oghul Qaimish becomes regent^[7]

1250s

Year	Date	Event
1251		Möngke Khan grants Berke Georgia^[8]
1255		Batu Khan constructs Sarai^[9]
1255		Batu Khan dies and is succeeded by his son Sartaq Khan, who dies soon after, and then Ulaghchi^[10]
1256		Daniel of Galicia expels Mongol garrisons from his territory^[2]
1256		Golden Horde carries out census of Ruthenian lands^[6]
1257		Ulaghchi dies and Berke, a Muslim, succeeds him^[8]
1258		Novgorod rebels and is defeated^[11]
1259		Second Mongol invasion of Poland: Berke and Boroldai invade Poland and Daniel of Galicia flees, however his sons and brother Vasilko of Galicia join the Mongols to plunder Lithuania and Polish territories^[2]
1259		Golden Horde elements in Bukhara rebel and Alghu suppresses them^[8]

1260s

Year	Date	Event
1260	2 February	Sack of Sandomierz (1260): Berke and Boroldai sack Sandomierz^[2]
1260		Toluid Civil War: Berke of the Golden Horde allies with Ariq Böke and declares war on Hulagu Khan^[12]
1262		Berke–Hulagu war: Berke of the Golden Horde allies with the Mamluks and invades Azerbaijan^[12]
1262		Suzdal rebels and is defeated^[13]
1263	13 January	Berke–Hulagu war: Berke defeats Hulagu Khan's army on the Terek River^[14]
1264		Mongol invasion of Byzantine Thrace: Berke attacks Thrace and secures the release of Kayqubad II^[15]
1265		Mongol invasion of Byzantine Thrace: Nogai Khan attacks Thrace and secures the release of Kayqubad II^[15]
1266	summer	Berke dies in Tbilisi and is succeeded by his grandnephew Mengu-Timur^[16]
1266		Byzantine–Mongol alliance: Michael VIII Palaiologos marries Euphrosyne Palaiologina to Nogai Khan^[17]
1267		Mengu-Timur grants Genoa Caffa^[18]
1269		Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq is defeated by the Golden Horde and loses a third of Transoxiana^[19]
1269		Golden Horde assists Vladimir-Suzdal in evicting the Germans from Narva^[15]

1270s

Year	Date	Event
1273		Golden Horde carries out census of Ruthenian lands^[6]
1273		Byzantine–Mongol alliance: Nogai Khan assists the Byzantines against Bulgaria^[20]
1279		Byzantine–Mongol alliance: Nogai Khan assists the Byzantines against Bulgaria^[20]

1280s

Year	Date	Event
1280		Mengu-Timur dies and his brother Tode Mongke succeeds him^[21]
1280		George I of Bulgaria submits to the Golden Horde^[20]
1282		Byzantine–Mongol alliance: Nogai Khan sends forces to Byzantium to assist them against Thessaly^[20]
1283		Tode Mongke converts to Islam and starts neglecting state affairs and as a result Köchü and Nogai Khan become co-khans^[22]
1284		Golden Horde invades Bulgaria and annexes Isaccea^[20]
1285		Second Mongol invasion of Hungary: Golden Horde invades Hungary and reaches as far as Pest before being defeated and forced to retreat^[23]
1287	6 December	Third Mongol invasion of Poland: Golden Horde invades Poland^[23]
1287		Köchü is overthrown and Talabuga becomes khan^[22]
1288	February	Third Mongol invasion of Poland: Mongol forces are defeated and forced to retreat^[23]
1289		Rostov rebels and is defeated^[13]

1290s

Year	Date	Event
1291		Mengu-Timur's fifth son Toqta flees to the Ilkhanate which helps him seize the throne^[22]
1291		Serbian conflict with the Nogai Horde: Serbia submits to the Golden Horde^[20]
1293		Golden Horde sacks Sandomierz^[24]
1295		Golden Horde invades Bulgaria^[20]
1296		Nogai Khan rebels against Toqta^[22]
1298		Nogai Khan sacks Caffa^[25]
1299		Toqta defeats Nogai Khan^[22]

14th century

1300s

Year	Date	Event
1300		Chaka, son of Nogai Khan, is murdered by Theodore Svetoslav of Bulgaria to appease Toqta^[26]
1305		Golden Horde raids Leles^[24]
1308		Toqta sacks Caffa^[25]

1310s

Year	Date	Event
1312		Toqta dies^[22]
1313		Toqta's nephew Öz Beg Khan seizes the throne, prohibits Buddhism among the elite, and applies Islamization among the Mongols.^[22]
1318		Öz Beg Khan attacks the Ilkhanate^[22]

1320s

Year	Date	Event
1320		Mubarak Khwaja of the White Horde converts to Islam^[27]
1320		Golden Horde attacks Thrace^[20]
1321		Golden Horde attacks Thrace^[20]
1324		Öz Beg Khan attacks Thrace and the Ilkhanate^[22]^[20]
1326		Golden Horde raids Hungary^[28]
1327		Tver Uprising of 1327: citizens of the Principality of Tver rebelled against the Golden Horde. The Golden Horde and its Muscovite and Suzdalian allies organised a punitive expedition to the Tver principality and put the revolt down.^[13]

1330s

Year	Date	Event
1330		Basarab I of Wallachia allies with the Golden Horde^[26]
1335		Öz Beg Khan attacks the Ilkhanate^[22]
1338		Golden Horde is ravaged by the Black Death^[21]
1339		Golden Horde starts receiving 24,000 ding of paper currency annually from the Yuan dynasty^[22]

1340s

Year	Date	Event
1340		Golden Horde sacks Sandomierz^[29]
1341		Öz Beg Khan dies and is succeeded by his son Tini Beg^[30]
1342		Tini Beg is overthrown by his brother Jani Beg^[21]
1345		Hungary attacks the Golden Horde^[31]
1346		Hungary forces the Golden Horde back to the Black Sea coasts^[31]
1347		Siege of Caffa: The Genoese possession of Caffa, a great trade emporium on the Crimean Peninsula, came under siege by an army of Mongol warriors under the command of Janibeg. An epidemic of bubonic plague had been ravaging Central Asia before the conflict in Caffa. Brought across the Silk Road, the Mongols used disease-infected corpses as a biological weapon. The corpses were catapulted over the city walls, infecting the inhabitants.^[32]

1350s

Year	Date	Event
1352	March	Golden Horde and Ruthenian allies attack Poland and capture Lublin^[29]
1357		Jani Beg is overthrown by his son Berdi Beg^[30]
1359		Berdi Beg is overthrown by his brother Qulpa.^[30] Beginning ot the Great Troubles.

1360s

Year	Date	Event
1360		Qulpa is overthrown by his brother Nawruz Beg and the Blue Horde rebels and seizes power in Sarai^[30]
1361		Nawruz Beg is overthrown by Khidr Khan ibn Sasibuqa Khan^[27]
1362		Mamai sets up puppet khans and rules from the Sea of Azov^[30]
1363		Battle of Blue Waters: Grand Duchy of Lithuania defeats the Golden Horde and vassalizes Ruthenian princes in the Dnieper region^[13]

1370s

Year	Date	Event
1373		Urus Khan overthrows the lineage of Khidr Khan ibn Sasibuqa Khan^[27]
1376		Tokhtamysh takes Sarai.^[33]
1378	11 August	Battle of the Vozha River: Dmitry Donskoy defeats a Mongol detachment^[34]
1378		Tokhtamysh overthrows the lineage of Urus Khan and leads the Turkic Blue Horde west^[30]

1380s

Year	Date	Event
1380		Golden Horde starts passing decrees in Turkish language^[21]
1380	8 September	Battle of Kulikovo: A largely Muscovite army led by Dmitri Donskoi defeated Mongol warlord Mamai in a pyrrhic victory at Kulikovo field.^[35]^[30] Mamai's Tverian allies never showed up, his Lithuanian and Riazani allies arrived too late to take part, but did harass the victorious Muscovite troops as they returned to Moscow.^[35]
1381		Battle of the Kalka River (1381): Tokhtamysh defeated Mamai, becoming the undisputed khan of the Golden Horde, and ending the war of succession that had been raging ever since 1359.^[36]^[30]
1382	26 August	Siege of Moscow (1382): khan Tokhtamysh of the Golden Horde and his allied Rus' princes of Tver, Riazan, and Nizhniy Novgorod besieged and sacked Moscow. The princes of Nizhniy Novgorod tricked the Muscovite citizens into surrendering the city, after which Moscow was immediately sacked.^[37] Thereafter, Tokhtamysh' troops sacked surrounding towns including Serpukhov, Pereyaslavl, and Kolomna,^[38]^[39] and on their way home southwards also the principality of Riazan.^[38]^[34]
1383		Tokhtamysh defeats the Lithuanians at Poltava^[40]
1387		Golden Horde loses control of the Black Sea coast^[41]

1390s

Year	Date	Event
1391	18 June	Battle of the Kondurcha River: Timur attacked the Golden Horde and defeats Tokhtamysh^[42]^[43]
1395	15 April	Battle of the Terek River: Timur sacked New Sarai and Tokhtamysh was overthrown; Edigu seized power and set up Temür Qutlugh as puppet khan^[30]
1397		Tokhtamysh fled to Lithuania, where Vytautas allowed him to stay at Vilnius^[44]
1399	12 August	Battle of the Vorskla River: Temür Qutlugh of the Golden Horde and Mongol warlord Edigu defeated the forces of grand prince Vytautas of Lithuania, Mongol warlord Tokhtamysh, and their allies. Tokhtamysh was forced to flee.^[45]^[46]

15th century

1400s

Year	Date	Event
1405		Tokhtamysh is killed by Shadi Beg's troops.^[45]
1408		Edigu attacked Moscow and extracted a ransom before retreating.^[47]^[45]
1408		The Nogai Horde emerges under Taibuga^[48]

1410s

Year	Date	Event
1411		The Golden Horde starts splintering; effective end of the Golden Horde^[30]
1412		Jalal al-Din Khan ibn Tokhtamysh reclaims the Golden Horde with Lithuanian support^[45]
1413		Jalal al-Din Khan ibn Tokhtamysh is murdered by his brother Karim Berdi^[45]
1418		Yeremferden seizes control of the Golden Horde^[45]

1420s

Year	Date	Event
1428		The Uzbek Khanate emerges under Abu'l-Khayr Khan^[49]

1430s

Year	Date	Event
1430		The Great Horde emerges^[50]

1440s

Year	Date	Event
1445		The Khanate of Kazan emerges under Ulugh Muhammad^[30]
1449		The Crimean Khanate emerges under Hacı I Giray^[30]

1450s

Year	Date	Event
1453		The Qasim Khanate emerges under Qasim Khan^[30]
1458		The Kazakh Khanate emerges under Janibek Khan and Kerei^[51]

1460s

Year	Date	Event
1466		The Astrakhan Khanate emerges under Mahmud bin Küchük's descendants^[50]

1470s

Year	Date	Event
1474		Ahmed Khan bin Küchük commands the Grand Duchy of Moscow to give tribute but is denied^[52]
1476		Ivan III of Moscow refuses to pay tribute to the Golden Horde^[52]

1480s

Year	Date	Event
1480	8 October – 28 November	Great Stand on the Ugra River: armies of Muscovy and the Great Horde confronted each other without fighting and then simultaneously retreated.^[53] Although long hailed as the "end of the Tatar yoke" in traditional Russian historiography, the event changed little in Muscovite–Horde relations.^[53]

16th century

Year	Date	Event
1502		The Crimean Khanate destroys the Great Horde^[54]

Gallery

Golden Horde raid at Ryazan
Golden Horde raid at Kyev
Golden Horde raid at Kozelsk
Golden Horde raid Vladimir
Golden Horde raid Suzdal
Tokhtamysh besieges Moscow

References

^ Atwood 2004, p. 73.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Atwood 2004, p. 79.
^ Atwood 2004, p. 201.
^ ^a ^b Vernadsky 1953, p. 142.
^ ^a ^b Atwood 2004, p. 479.
^ ^a ^b ^c Atwood 2004, p. 205.
^ Twitchett 1994, p. 389.
^ ^a ^b ^c Atwood 2004, p. 202.
^ Atwood 2004, p. 203.
^ Atwood 2004, p. 37.
^ Atwood 2004, p. 48.
^ ^a ^b Twitchett 1994, p. 412.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Atwood 2004, p. 480.
^ Atwood 2004, p. 226.
^ ^a ^b ^c Jackson 2005, p. 202.
^ Atwood 2004, p. 234.
^ Nicol 1993, p. 81.
^ Atwood 2004, p. 122.
^ Atwood 2004, p. 83.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j Jackson 2005, p. 203.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Atwood 2004, p. 207.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k Atwood 2004, p. 206.
^ ^a ^b ^c Jackson 2005, p. 205.
^ ^a ^b Jackson 2005, p. 206.
^ ^a ^b Jackson 2005, p. 305.
^ ^a ^b Jackson 2005, p. 204.
^ ^a ^b ^c Atwood 2004, p. 42.
^ Jackson 2005, p. 212.
^ ^a ^b Jackson 2005, p. 210.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m Atwood 2004, p. 208.
^ ^a ^b Jackson 2005, p. 213.
^ Svat Soucek. A History of Inner Asia. Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-521-65704-0. P. 116.
^ Christian 2018, p. 55.
^ ^a ^b Atwood 2004, p. 481.
^ ^a ^b Halperin 1987, p. 73–74.
^ Halperin 1987, p. 74–75.
^ Halperin 1987, p. 74–75, 119.
^ ^a ^b Crummey 2014, p. 57.
^ Shaikhutdinov 2021, p. 106.
^ Grousset 1970, p. 407.
^ Jackson 2005, p. 217.
^ Halperin 1987.
^ Jackson 2005, p. 216.
^ Jackson 2005, p. 218.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Jackson 2005, p. 219.
^ Vernadsky 1953, p. 282.
^ Halperin 1987, p. 57.
^ Atwood 2004, p. 343.
^ Halperin 1987, p. 29.
^ ^a ^b Cosmo 2009, p. 253.
^ Christian 2018, p. 63.
^ ^a ^b Grousset 1970, p. 470.
^ ^a ^b Halperin 1987, p. 70–73.
^ Halperin 1987, p. 59.

Bibliography

Andrade, Tonio (2016), The Gunpowder Age: China, Military Innovation, and the Rise of the West in World History, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-13597-7.
Asimov, M.S. (1998), History of civilizations of Central Asia Volume IV The age of achievement: A.D. 750 to the end of the fifteenth century Part One The historical, social and economic setting, UNESCO Publishing
Atwood, Christopher P. (2004), Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, Facts On File
Barfield, Thomas (1989), The Perilous Frontier: Nomadic Empires and China, Basil Blackwell
Barrett, Timothy Hugh (2008), The Woman Who Discovered Printing, Great Britain: Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-12728-7 (alk. paper)
Beckwith, Christopher I. (2009), Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-13589-2
Beckwith, Christopher I (1987), The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia: A History of the Struggle for Great Power among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese during the Early Middle Ages, Princeton University Press
Biran, Michal (2005), The Empire of the Qara Khitai in Eurasian History: Between China and the Islamic World, Cambridge Studies in Islamic Civilization, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521842263
Bregel, Yuri (2003), An Historical Atlas of Central Asia, Brill
Christian, David (2018), A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia 2, Wiley Blackwell
Cosmo, Nicola di (2009), The Cambridge History of Inner Asia: The Chinggisid Age, Cambridge University Press
Crummey, Robert O. (2014). The Formation of Muscovy 1300 – 1613. Routledge. pp. 52–62. ISBN 9781317872009. (originally published in 1987).
Drompp, Michael Robert (2005), Tang China And The Collapse Of The Uighur Empire: A Documentary History, Brill
Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (1999), The Cambridge Illustrated History of China, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-66991-X (paperback).
Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2006), East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, ISBN 0-618-13384-4
Golden, Peter B. (1992), An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples: Ethnogenesis and State-Formation in Medieval and Early Modern Eurasia and the Middle East, OTTO HARRASSOWITZ · WIESBADEN
Graff, David A. (2002), Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900, Warfare and History, London: Routledge, ISBN 0415239559
Graff, David Andrew (2016), The Eurasian Way of War Military Practice in Seventh-Century China and Byzantium, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-46034-7.
Grousset, Rene (1970), Empire of the Steppes, Rutgers University Press
Halperin, Charles J. (1987). Russia and the Golden Horde: The Mongol Impact on Medieval Russian History. Indiana University. p. 222. ISBN 9781850430575. (e-book).
Haywood, John (1998), Historical Atlas of the Medieval World, AD 600-1492, Barnes & Noble
Jackson, Peter (2005), The Mongols and the West, Pearson Education Limited
Latourette, Kenneth Scott (1964), The Chinese, their history and culture, Volumes 1-2, Macmillan
Lorge, Peter A. (2008), The Asian Military Revolution: from Gunpowder to the Bomb, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-60954-8
Luttwak, Edward N. (2009), The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press
Millward, James (2009), Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang, Columbia University Press
Mote, F. W. (2003), Imperial China: 900–1800, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0674012127
Needham, Joseph (1986), Science & Civilisation in China, vol. V:7: The Gunpowder Epic, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-30358-3
Nicol, Donald M. (1993), The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261-1453, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521439916
Rong, Xinjiang (2013), Eighteen Lectures on Dunhuang, Brill
Schafer, Edward H. (1985), The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A study of T'ang Exotics, University of California Press
Shaban, M. A. (1979), The ʿAbbāsid Revolution, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-29534-3
Shaikhutdinov, Marat (23 November 2021). "3.4 Invasion of Tokhtamysh". Between East and West: The Formation of the Moscow State. Academic Studies Press. pp. 104–107. ISBN 9781644697153.
Sinor, Denis (1990), The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, Volume 1, Cambridge University Press
Sima, Guang (2015), Bóyángbǎn Zīzhìtōngjiàn 54 huánghòu shīzōng 柏楊版資治通鑑54皇后失蹤, Yuǎnliú chūbǎnshìyè gǔfèn yǒuxiàn gōngsī, ISBN 978-957-32-0876-1
Skaff, Jonathan Karam (2012), Sui-Tang China and Its Turko-Mongol Neighbors: Culture, Power, and Connections, 580-800 (Oxford Studies in Early Empires), Oxford University Press
Standen, Naomi (2007), Unbounded Loyalty Frontier Crossings in Liao China, University of Hawai'i Press
Steinhardt, Nancy Shatzman (1997), Liao Architecture, University of Hawaii Press
Twitchett, Denis C. (1979), The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 3, Sui and T'ang China, 589–906, Cambridge University Press
Twitchett, Denis (1994), "The Liao", The Cambridge History of China, Volume 6, Alien Regime and Border States, 907-1368, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 43–153, ISBN 0521243319
Twitchett, Denis (2009), The Cambridge History of China Volume 5 The Sung dynasty and its Predecessors, 907-1279, Cambridge University Press
Vernadsky, George (1953), The Mongols and Russia, Yale University Press
Wang, Zhenping (2013), Tang China in Multi-Polar Asia: A History of Diplomacy and War, University of Hawaii Press
Wilkinson, Endymion (2015). Chinese History: A New Manual, 4th edition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center distributed by Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674088467.
Xiong, Victor Cunrui (2000), Sui-Tang Chang'an: A Study in the Urban History of Late Medieval China (Michigan Monographs in Chinese Studies), U OF M CENTER FOR CHINESE STUDIES, ISBN 0892641371
Xiong, Victor Cunrui (2009), Historical Dictionary of Medieval China, United States of America: Scarecrow Press, Inc., ISBN 978-0810860537
Xu, Elina-Qian (2005), HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRE-DYNASTIC KHITAN, Institute for Asian and African Studies 7
Xue, Zongzheng (1992), Turkic peoples, 中国社会科学出版社
Yuan, Shu (2001), Bóyángbǎn Tōngjiàn jìshìběnmò 28 dìèrcìhuànguánshídài 柏楊版通鑑記事本末28第二次宦官時代, Yuǎnliú chūbǎnshìyè gǔfèn yǒuxiàn gōngsī, ISBN 957-32-4273-7
Yule, Henry (1915), Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China, Vol I: Preliminary Essay on the Intercourse Between China and the Western Nations Previous to the Discovery of the Cape Route, Hakluyt Society

[FOOTNOTEAtwood200473-1] Atwood 2004, p. 73.

[FOOTNOTEAtwood200479-2] Atwood 2004, p. 79.

[FOOTNOTEAtwood2004201-3] Atwood 2004, p. 201.

[FOOTNOTEVernadsky1953142-4] Vernadsky 1953, p. 142.

[FOOTNOTEAtwood2004479-5] Atwood 2004, p. 479.

[FOOTNOTEAtwood2004205-6] Atwood 2004, p. 205.

[FOOTNOTETwitchett1994389-7] Twitchett 1994, p. 389.

[FOOTNOTEAtwood2004202-8] Atwood 2004, p. 202.

[FOOTNOTEAtwood2004203-9] Atwood 2004, p. 203.

[FOOTNOTEAtwood200437-10] Atwood 2004, p. 37.

[FOOTNOTEAtwood200448-11] Atwood 2004, p. 48.

[FOOTNOTETwitchett1994412-12] Twitchett 1994, p. 412.

[FOOTNOTEAtwood2004480-13] Atwood 2004, p. 480.

[FOOTNOTEAtwood2004226-14] Atwood 2004, p. 226.

[FOOTNOTEJackson2005202-15] Jackson 2005, p. 202.

[FOOTNOTEAtwood2004234-16] Atwood 2004, p. 234.

[FOOTNOTENicol199381-17] Nicol 1993, p. 81.

[FOOTNOTEAtwood2004122-18] Atwood 2004, p. 122.

[FOOTNOTEAtwood200483-19] Atwood 2004, p. 83.

[FOOTNOTEJackson2005203-20] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j Jackson 2005, p. 203.

[FOOTNOTEAtwood2004207-21] Atwood 2004, p. 207.

[FOOTNOTEAtwood2004206-22] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k Atwood 2004, p. 206.

[FOOTNOTEJackson2005205-23] Jackson 2005, p. 205.

[FOOTNOTEJackson2005206-24] Jackson 2005, p. 206.

[FOOTNOTEJackson2005305-25] Jackson 2005, p. 305.

[FOOTNOTEJackson2005204-26] Jackson 2005, p. 204.

[FOOTNOTEAtwood200442-27] Atwood 2004, p. 42.

[FOOTNOTEJackson2005212-28] Jackson 2005, p. 212.

[FOOTNOTEJackson2005210-29] Jackson 2005, p. 210.

[FOOTNOTEAtwood2004208-30] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m Atwood 2004, p. 208.

[FOOTNOTEJackson2005213-31] Jackson 2005, p. 213.

[32] Svat Soucek. A History of Inner Asia. Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-521-65704-0. P. 116.

[FOOTNOTEChristian201855-33] Christian 2018, p. 55.

[FOOTNOTEAtwood2004481-34] Atwood 2004, p. 481.

[FOOTNOTEHalperin198773–74-35] Halperin 1987, p. 73–74.

[FOOTNOTEHalperin198774–75-36] Halperin 1987, p. 74–75.

[FOOTNOTEHalperin198774–75,_119-37] Halperin 1987, p. 74–75, 119.

[FOOTNOTECrummey201457-38] Crummey 2014, p. 57.

[FOOTNOTEShaikhutdinov2021106-39] Shaikhutdinov 2021, p. 106.

[FOOTNOTEGrousset1970407-40] Grousset 1970, p. 407.

[FOOTNOTEJackson2005217-41] Jackson 2005, p. 217.

[FOOTNOTEHalperin1987-42] Halperin 1987.

[FOOTNOTEJackson2005216-43] Jackson 2005, p. 216.

[FOOTNOTEJackson2005218-44] Jackson 2005, p. 218.

[FOOTNOTEJackson2005219-45] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Jackson 2005, p. 219.

[FOOTNOTEVernadsky1953282-46] Vernadsky 1953, p. 282.

[FOOTNOTEHalperin198757-47] Halperin 1987, p. 57.

[FOOTNOTEAtwood2004343-48] Atwood 2004, p. 343.

[FOOTNOTEHalperin198729-49] Halperin 1987, p. 29.

[FOOTNOTECosmo2009253-50] Cosmo 2009, p. 253.

[FOOTNOTEChristian201863-51] Christian 2018, p. 63.

[FOOTNOTEGrousset1970470-52] Grousset 1970, p. 470.

[FOOTNOTEHalperin198770–73-53] Halperin 1987, p. 70–73.

[FOOTNOTEHalperin198759-54] Halperin 1987, p. 59.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]

[39]

[40]

[41]

[42]

[43]

[44]

[45]

[46]

[47]

[48]

[49]

[50]

[51]

[52]

[53]

[54]