自由意志主義(英語:libertarianism),又常譯為自由人主義、放任自由主義、自由意志論、自由至上主義、自由至上論,是一套把自由奉為核心原則的政治理念及運動[1],主張把人的政治自由及自主權最大化,並强调选择自由(英语:Freedom of choice)、自由結社、個人判斷的重要性[2]。儘管大多自由意志主義者會對政治權威(英语:Political authority)及國家公權力持懷疑態度,但他们對於該反對哪些既有经济及政治制度存有內部分歧。各個自由意志主義學派對於公權力及私權力的合法職能存有不同看法,不過他們往往會要求限制或廢除具有强制性的社会制度。現時已有区分各個自由意志主義學派的大致分类[3][4],一般以特定思想對於財產和資本的看法,來把其於左-右(或社会主义-资本主义)連續體當中分類[5]。
另一位哲學家簡·納維森(Jan Narveson)則試著面對內格爾的挑戰。根基在大衛·高契爾(David Gauthier)的論點上,納維森發展了一套契約論的自由意志主義,在1988年出版的The Libertarian Idea一書、以及2002年出版的Respecting Persons in Theory and Practice等著作裡加以描述,他承認個人或許會為了改變自然狀態而殺害或是偷竊別人,但他認為這不代表著就需要一個專制的政府來維護這種自然狀態。納維森並主張,沒有政府是絕對必須存在的。其他支持契約論自由意志主義的人還有公共選擇學派的創始人、同時也是諾貝爾獎獲獎人的詹姆斯·M·布坎南。
希尔·斯坦纳(英语:Hillel Steiner)[32]、菲利普·范·帕里斯[33]等学者支持平等主義的原則,與個人自由和财产权利的主張加以混合。他們自稱為“左翼自由意志主義”(left-libertarians)。左翼自由意志主義者相信最初自然狀態下自然资源的本質應該是公平分配的,在对外部资源的分配上,有主张生产资料共同所有的,还有平等机会派和平等份额派。机会平等的左翼自由意志主义意味着,一个人应当为其他人留下足够多的资源,以使其他人过好生活的有效机会和他从使用和占有自然资源中获得的过好生活的有效机会一样(即双方是平等的),如果达不到这一标准的则需要对其他人作出补偿。一些左翼自由意志主義者甚至使用洛克式但書以主張重新分配式的平等。菲利普·范·帕里斯和大冢秀树等人,他們所出版的沒有不平等的自由意志主義(Libertarianism Without Inequality)一書是目前最傾向平等主義的自由意志主義者著作。[34]
相同的,左翼和右翼的立場都對左翼自由意志主義有所批評。更右翼的自由意志主義者如羅伯特·諾齊克堅持主張個人的自我擁有權和財產所有權並不須達成平等主義的水平,只需要依照洛克的想法—不去使別人的情況更糟即可。分析型馬克思主義(英语:Analytical Marxism)哲學家吉羅德·柯亨(Gerald Cohen)也廣泛批評左翼自由意志主義所堅持的自我所有權以及平等觀念。在他所著的《自我所有权,自由和平等》一書裡,他認為要達成平等所需建立的制度,與自由意志主義所強調的大量自由和自我所有權觀念是不相容的。不過自由意志主義的主要組織卡托研究所的研究員Tom G. Palmer也回應了柯亨的批評[35]。
自由意志主義者與他們的同盟並非都是同種性質,但都在智庫、政黨以及其他計畫上合作。比如奧地利經濟學派的學者穆瑞·羅斯巴德等人便共同建立了約翰藍道夫俱樂部(John Randolph Club),成為自由意志主義最主要的研究機構。而卡托研究所則支持許多獨立發起的自由意志主義運動,並於1971年加入了大衛·諾蘭所創始的自由意志黨(不過羅斯巴德在1985年脫離了自由意志黨)。目前在美國有許多自由意志主義者支持自由意志黨,有些人則不支持任何政黨,而有些人則試著與更有影響力的政黨合作—無論他們之間的差異。美國共和黨便有支持自由意志主義的派系—共和黨自由意志派(Republican Liberty Caucus)。類似的派系也存在於民主党裡—自由意志民主党人,只不過較少為人知。共和黨的眾議員榮·保羅同時也是自由意志黨的成員,而且還曾擔任總統候選人。
在2001年,政治學者兼自由意志主義者Jason Sorens資助發起了自由州計畫(Free State Project),計畫招募20000名自由意志主義者遷移到美國某個特定的州,以專注於他們的行動,到了2003年8月這計畫的地點選定在新罕布什尔州。不過直到2005年,報名的參與者仍然很少,而且許多參與者不滿選在新罕布什尔州,開始進行不同地點的計畫,例如地點選在美國西部的自由西部同盟(Free West Alliance)計畫,以及選在阿拉斯加州的北方未來(North to the Future)計畫。同時在歐洲也有歐洲自由計畫(European Free State Project)。
^Boaz, David. Libertarianism. 2009-01-30 [2017-02-21]. (原始内容存档于2015-05-04). [L]ibertarianism, political philosophy that takes individual liberty to be the primary political value.|encyclopedia=被忽略 (帮助)
^Woodcock, George. Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements. Peterborough: Broadview Press. 2004: 16 [1962]. ISBN 9781551116297. [F]or the very nature of the libertarian attitude—its rejection of dogma, its deliberate avoidance of rigidly systematic theory, and, above all, its stress on extreme freedom of choice and on the primacy of the individual judgement (原文如此).
^Long, Joseph. W (1996). "Toward a Libertarian Theory of Class". Social Philosophy and Policy. 15 (2): 310. "When I speak of 'libertarianism' [...] I mean all three of these very different movements. It might be protested that LibCap [libertarian capitalism], LibSoc [libertarian socialism] and LibPop [libertarian populism] are too different from one another to be treated as aspects of a single point of view. But they do share a common—or at least an overlapping—intellectual ancestry."
^Carlson, Jennifer D. (2012). "Libertarianism". In Miller, Wilburn R., ed. The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America. London: Sage Publications. p. 1006 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆). ISBN1412988764. "There exist three major camps in libertarian thought: right-libertarianism, socialist libertarianism, and left-libertarianism; the extent to which these represent distinct ideologies as opposed to variations on a theme is contested by scholars."
^"The Rise of Social Anarchism". In Gaus, Gerald F.; D'Agostino, Fred, eds. (2012). The Routledge Companion to Social and Political Philosophy. p. 223 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆). "In the meantime, anarchist theories of a more communist or collectivist character had been developing as well. One important pioneer is French anarcho-communists Joseph Déjacque (1821–1864), who [...] appears to have been the first thinker to adopt the term "libertarian" for this position; hence "libertarianism" initially denoted a communist rather than a free-market ideology."
^"Anarchism". In Gaus, Gerald F.; D'Agostino, Fred, eds. (2012). The Routledge Companion to Social and Political Philosophy. p. 227 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆). "In its oldest sense, it is a synonym either for anarchism in general or social anarchism in particular."
^Rothbard, Murray. The Betrayal of the American Right(PDF). Mises Institute. 2009: 83 [2007] [2020-06-12]. ISBN 978-1610165013. (原始内容(PDF)存档于2019-12-21). One gratifying aspect of our rise to some prominence is that, for the first time in my memory, we, 'our side,' had captured a crucial word from the enemy. 'Libertarians' had long been simply a polite word for left-wing anarchists, that is for anti-private property anarchists, either of the communist or syndicalist variety. But now we had taken it over.
^Marshall, Peter (2009). Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism. p. 641 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆). "For a long time, libertarian was interchangeable in France with anarchism but in recent years, its meaning has become more ambivalent. Some anarchists like Daniel Guérin will call themselves 'libertarian socialists', partly to avoid the negative overtones still associated with anarchism, and partly to stress the place of anarchism within the socialist tradition. Even Marxists of the New Left like E. P. Thompson call themselves 'libertarian' to distinguish themselves from those authoritarian socialists and communists who believe in revolutionary dictatorship and vanguard parties."
^Kropotkin, Peter. Anarchism: A Collection of Revolutionary Writings. Courier Dover Publications. 1927: 150. ISBN 9780486119861. It attacks not only capital, but also the main sources of the power of capitalism: law, authority, and the State.
^Otero, Carlos Peregrin. Introduction to Chomsky's Social Theory. Otero, Carlos Peregrin (编). Radical Priorities. Chomsky, Noam Chomsky 3rd. Oakland, California: AK Press. 2003: 26. ISBN 1-902593-69-3.
^Carlson, Jennifer D. (2012). "Libertarianism". In Miller, Wilbur R. The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America: An Encyclopedia. SAGE Publications. p. 1006 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆). "[S]ocialist libertarians view any concentration of power into the hands of a few (whether politically or economically) as antithetical to freedom and thus advocate for the simultaneous abolition of both government and capitalism".
^ 14.014.1Kymlicka, Will (2005). "libertarianism, left-". In Honderich, Ted. The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. New York City: Oxford University Press. p. 516. ISBN978-0199264797. "'Left-libertarianism' is a new term for an old conception of justice, dating back to Grotius. It combines the libertarian assumption that each person possesses a natural right of self-ownership over his person with the egalitarian premiss that natural resources should be shared equally. Right-wing libertarians argue that the right of self-ownership entails the right to appropriate unequal parts of the external world, such as unequal amounts of land. According to left-libertarians, however, the world's natural resources were initially unowned, or belonged equally to all, and it is illegitimate for anyone to claim exclusive private ownership of these resources to the detriment of others. Such private appropriation is legitimate only if everyone can appropriate an equal amount, or if those who appropriate more are taxed to compensate those who are thereby excluded from what was once common property. Historic proponents of this view include Thomas Paine, Herbert Spencer, and Henry George. Recent exponents include Philippe Van Parijs and Hillel Steiner."
^Goodway, David (2006). Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow: Left-Libertarian Thought and British Writers from William Morris to Colin Ward. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. p. 4 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆). ISBN1846310253. ISBN978-1846310256. "'Libertarian' and 'libertarianism' are frequently employed by anarchists as synonyms for 'anarchist' and 'anarchism', largely as an attempt to distance themselves from the negative connotations of 'anarchy' and its derivatives. The situation has been vastly complicated in recent decades with the rise of anarcho-capitalism, 'minimal statism' and an extreme right-wing laissez-faire philosophy advocated by such theorists as Murray Rothbard and Robert Nozick and their adoption of the words 'libertarian' and 'libertarianism'. It has therefore now become necessary to distinguish between their right libertarianism and the left libertarianism of the anarchist tradition".
^Marshall, Peter (2008). Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism. London: Harper Perennial. p. 641 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆). "Left libertarianism can therefore range from the decentralist who wishes to limit and devolve State power, to the syndicalist who wants to abolish it altogether. It can even encompass the Fabians and the social democrats who wish to socialize the economy but who still see a limited role for the State".
^Newman, Saul (2010). The Politics of Postanarchism, Edinburgh University Press. p. 43 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆). ISBN0748634959. ISBN978-0748634958. "It is important to distinguish between anarchism and certain strands of right-wing libertarianism which at times go by the same name (for example, Murray Rothbard's anarcho-capitalism). There is a complex debate within this tradition between those like Robert Nozick, who advocate a 'minimal state', and those like Rothbard who want to do away with the state altogether and allow all transactions to be governed by the market alone. From an anarchist perspective, however, both positions—the minimal state (minarchist) and the no-state ('anarchist') positions—neglect the problem of economic domination; in other words, they neglect the hierarchies, oppressions, and forms of exploitation that would inevitably arise in a laissez-faire 'free' market. [...] Anarchism, therefore, has no truck with this right-wing libertarianism, not only because it neglects economic inequality and domination, but also because in practice (and theory) it is highly inconsistent and contradictory. The individual freedom invoked by right-wing libertarians is only a narrow economic freedom within the constraints of a capitalist market, which, as anarchists show, is no freedom at all".
^"Anarchism". In Gaus, Gerald F.; D'Agostino, Fred, eds. (2012). The Routledge Companion to Social and Political Philosophy. p. 227. "The term 'left-libertarianism' has at least three meanings. In its oldest sense, it is a synonym either for anarchism in general or social anarchism in particular. Later it became a term for the left or Konkinite wing of the free-market libertarian movement, and has since come to cover a range of pro-market but anti-capitalist positions, mostly individualist anarchist, including agorism and mutualism, often with an implication of sympathies (such as for radical feminism or the labor movement) not usually shared by anarcho-capitalists. In a third sense it has recently come to be applied to a position combining individual self-ownership with an egalitarian approach to natural resources; most proponents of this position are not anarchists."
^Vallentyne, Peter. Libertarianism. Zalta, Edward N. (编). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Spring 2009. Stanford, California: Stanford University. March 2009 [2010-03-05]. (原始内容存档于2019-07-06). Libertarianism is committed to full self-ownership. A distinction can be made, however, between right-libertarianism and left-libertarianism, depending on the stance taken on how natural resources can be owned.
^Hussain, Syed B. Encyclopedia of Capitalism, Volume 2. New York: Facts on File Inc. 2004: 492 [2020-06-12]. ISBN 0816052247. (原始内容存档于2020-09-30). In the modern world, political ideologies are largely defined by their attitude towards capitalism. Marxists want to overthrow it, liberals to curtail it extensively, conservatives to curtail it moderately. Those who maintain that capitalism is an excellent economic system, unfairly maligned, with little or no need for corrective government policy, are generally known as libertarians.
^ 23.023.1Miller, Wilbur R. (2012). The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America: An Encyclopedia. SAGE Publications. p. 1006 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆).
^Baradat, Leon P. Political Ideologies. Routledge. 2015: 31. ISBN 978-1317345558.
^"I'm for a free market. I only oppose the misuse of technology. A libertarian society would not allow anyone to injure others by pollution because it insists on individual responsibility. That's part of the beauty of libertarianism." -Russell Means
^The maxims are described in the introduction of this article. Tenet is a principle, belief, or doctrine generally held to be true.(Meraim Webster) I.e. it is generally held to be true that as a fundamental maxim all human interaction should be voluntary and consensual
^"The libertarian, if he is to be logically consistent, must urge zero crime, not a small amount of it. Any crime is anathema for the libertarian. Any government, no matter how "nice", must therefore also be rejected by the libertarian." Walter Block, GOVERNMENTAL INEVITABILITY: REPLY TO HOLCOMBE, JOURNAL OF LIBERTARIAN STUDIES VOLUME 19, NO. 3 (SUMMER 2005): 71–93
Franzen, Don Los Angeles Times Book Review Desk, review of "Neither Left Nor Right". January 19, 1997. Franzen states that "Murray and Boaz share the political philosophy of libertarianism, which upholds individual liberty--both economic and personal--and advocates a government limited, with few exceptions, to protecting individual rights and restraining the use of force and fraud." (Review on libertarianism.org). MSN Encarta's entry on Libertarianism defines it as a "political philosophy" (Both references retrieved June 24, 2005). The Encyclopedia Britannica defines Libertarianism as "Political philosophy that stresses personal liberty." (link[失效連結][失效連結], accessed 29 June, 2005)
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