Following the end of the Space Race, spaceflight has been characterized by greater international cooperation, cheaper access to low Earth orbit and an expansion of commercial ventures. Interplanetary probes have visited all of the planets in the Solar System, and humans have remained in orbit for long periods aboard space stations such as Mir and the ISS. Most recently, China has emerged as the third nation with the capability to launch independent crewed missions, whilst operators in the commercial sector have developed reusable booster systems and craft launched from airborne platforms.In 2020, SpaceX became the first commercial operator to successfully launch a crewed mission to the International Space Station with Crew Dragon Demo-2.
The first realistic proposal for spaceflight was "Issledovanie Mirovikh Prostranstv Reaktivnimi Priborami", or "The Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means of Reaction Devices" by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, published in 1903.[6]
The first rocket to reach space was a German V-2 rocket, on a vertical test flight in June 1944.[9] After the war ended, the research and development branch of the (British) Ordinance Office organised Operation Backfire which, in October 1945, assembled enough V-2 missiles and supporting components to enable the launch of three (possibly four, depending on source consulted) of them from a site near Cuxhaven in northern Germany. Although these launches were inclined and the rockets did not achieve the altitude necessary to be regarded as sub-orbital spaceflight, the Backfire report remains the most extensive technical documentation of the rocket, including all support procedures, tailored vehicles and fuel composition.[10]
Subsequently, the British Interplanetary Society proposed an enlarged man-carrying version of the V-2 called Megaroc. The plan, written in 1946, envisaged a three-year development programme culminating in the launch of test pilot Eric Brown on a sub-orbital mission in 1949.[11][12]
The decision by the Ministry of Supply under Attlee's government to concentrate on research into nuclear power generation and sub-sonic passenger jet aircraft over supersonic atmospheric flight and spaceflight delayed the introduction of both of the latter, although only by a year in the case of supersonic flight, as the data from the Miles M.52 was handed to Bell Aircraft.[citation needed]
The race began in 1957 when both the US and the USSR made statements announced they planned to launch artificial satellites during the 18-month long International Geophysical Year of July 1957 to December 1958. On July 29, 1957, the US announced a planned launch of the Vanguard by the spring of 1958, and on July 31, the USSR announced it would launch a satellite in the fall of 1957.[citation needed]
On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite of Earth in the history of humankind.
On November 3, 1957, the Soviet Union launched the second satellite, Sputnik 2, and the first to carry a living animal into orbit, a dog named Laika. Sputnik 3 was launched on May 15, 1958, and carried a large array of instruments for geophysical research and provided data on pressure and composition of the upper atmosphere, concentration of charged particles, photons in cosmic rays, heavy nuclei in cosmic rays, magnetic and electrostatic fields, and meteoric particles. After a series of failures with the program, the US succeeded with Explorer 1, which became the first US satellite in space, on February 1, 1958. This carried scientific instrumentation and detected the theorized Van Allen radiation belt.
The US public shock over Sputnik 1 became known as the Sputnik crisis. On July 29, 1958, the US Congress passed legislation turning the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) into the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) with responsibility for the nation's civilian space programs. In 1959, NASA began Project Mercury to launch single-man capsules into Earth orbit and chose a corps of seven astronauts introduced as the Mercury Seven.[citation needed]
On April 12, 1961, the USSR opened the era of crewed spaceflight, with the flight of the first cosmonaut (Russian name for space travelers), Yuri Gagarin. Gagarin's flight, part of the Soviet Vostok space exploration program, took 108 minutes and consisted of a single orbit of the Earth.[citation needed]
On August 7, 1961, Gherman Titov, another Soviet cosmonaut, became the second man in orbit during his Vostok 2 mission. Titov orbited Earth 17 times in over 25 hours during his spaceflight.[17]
By June 16, 1963, the USSR launched a total of six Vostok cosmonauts, two pairs of them flying concurrently, and accumulating a total of 260 cosmonaut-orbits and just over sixteen cosmonaut-days in space.[citation needed]
On May 5, 1961, the US launched its first suborbital Mercury astronaut, Alan Shepard, in the Freedom 7 capsule. Unlike Gagarin, Shepard manually controlled his spacecraft's attitude and landed inside it thus technically making Freedom 7 the first “completed” human spaceflight by then FAI definitions, but later it recognized that Gagarin was the first human to fly into space. Prior to that on January 31, through NASA's Mercury-Redstone 2 mission, the chimpanzeeHam became the first Hominidae in space.[18]
The first woman in space was former civilian parachutist Valentina Tereshkova, who entered orbit on June 16, 1963, aboard the Soviet mission Vostok 6. The chief Soviet spacecraft designer, Sergey Korolyov, conceived of the idea to recruit a female cosmonaut corps and launch two women concurrently on Vostok 5/6. However, his plan was changed to launch a male first in Vostok 5, followed shortly afterward by Tereshkova. The then first secretary of the Soviet Union, Nikita Khrushchev, spoke to Tereshkova by radio during her flight.[19]
On November 3, 1963, Tereshkova married fellow cosmonaut Andrian Nikolayev, who had previously flown on Vostok 3.[20] On June 8, 1964, she gave birth to the first child conceived by two space travelers.[21] The couple divorced in 1982, and Tereshkova went on to become a prominent member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.[22]
Khrushchev pressured Korolyov to quickly produce greater space achievements in competition with the announced Gemini and Apollo plans. Rather than allowing him to develop his plans for a crewed Soyuz spacecraft, he was forced to make modifications to squeeze two or three men into the Vostok capsule, calling the result Voskhod. Only two of these were launched. Voskhod 1 was the first spacecraft with a crew of three, who could not wear space suits because of size and weight constrictions. Alexei Leonov made the first spacewalk when he left the Voskhod 2 on March 8, 1965. He was almost lost in space when he had extreme difficulty fitting his inflated space suit back into the cabin through an airlock, and a landing error forced him and Voskhod 2 crewmate Pavel Belyayev to be lost in dense woods for hours before being found by the recovery crew and rescued days later.[citation needed]
The start of crewed Gemini missions was delayed a year later than NASA had planned, but ten largely successful missions were launched in 1965 and 1966, allowing the US to overtake the Soviet lead by achieving space rendezvous (Gemini 6A) and docking (Gemini 8) of two vehicles, long duration flights of eight days (Gemini 5) and fourteen days (Gemini 7), and demonstrating the use of extra-vehicular activity to do useful work outside a spacecraft (Gemini 12).[citation needed]
The USSR made no crewed flights during this period but continued to develop its Soyuz craft and secretly accepted Kennedy's implicit lunar challenge, designing Soyuz variants for lunar orbit and landing. They also attempted to develop the N1, a large, crewed Moon-capable launch vehicle similar to the US Saturn V.[citation needed]
As both nations rushed to get their new spacecraft flying with men, the intensity of the competition caught up to them in early 1967, when they suffered their first crew fatalities. On January 27, the entire crew of Apollo 1, "Gus" Grissom, Ed White, and Roger Chaffee, were killed by suffocation in a fire that swept through their cabin during a ground test approximately one month before their planned launch. On April 24, the single pilot of Soyuz 1, Vladimir Komarov, was killed in a crash when his landing parachutes tangled, after a mission cut short by electrical and control system problems. Both accidents were determined to be caused by design defects in the spacecraft, which were corrected before crewed flights resumed.[citation needed]
The US conducted the first crewed spaceflight to leave Earth orbit and orbit the Moon on December 21, 1968, with the Apollo 8 space mission. Later they succeeded in achieving President Kennedy's goal on July 20, 1969, with the landing of Apollo 11. Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin became the first men to set foot on the Moon. Six such successful landings were achieved through 1972, with one failure on Apollo 13.[citation needed]
The N1 rocket suffered four catastrophic uncrewed launch failures between 1969 and 1972, and the Soviet government officially discontinued its crewed lunar program on June 24, 1974, when Valentin Glushko succeeded Korolyov as General Spacecraft Designer.[24]
Both nations went on to fly relatively small, non-permanent crewed space laboratories Salyut and Skylab, using their Soyuz and Apollo craft as shuttles. The US launched only one Skylab, but the USSR launched a total of seven "Salyuts", three of which were secretly Almaz military crewed reconnaissance stations, which carried "defensive" cannons. Crewed reconnaissance stations were found to be a bad idea since uncrewed satellites could do the job much more cost-effectively. The United States Air Force had planned a crewed reconnaissance station, the Manned Orbital Laboratory, which was cancelled in 1969. The Soviets cancelled Almaz in 1978.[citation needed]
In a season of detente, the two competitors declared an end to the race and literally shook hands on July 17, 1975, with the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, where the two craft docked, and the crews exchanged visits.
Diversification and development stagnation (1970s to 2010s)
In the 1970s the Soviet Union started to invite other countries to fly their people into space through its Intercosmos program and the United States started to include women and people of colour in its astronaut program.
First exchange between the United States and the Soviet Union was formalized in the 1962 Dryden-Blagonravov agreement, calling for cooperation on the exchange of data from weather satellites, a study of the Earth's magnetic field, and joint tracking of the NASA Echo II balloon satellite.[26] In 1963 President Kennedy could even interest premier Khrushchev in a joint crewed Moon landing,[27][28] but after the assassination of Kennedy in November 1963 and Khrushchev's removal from office in October 1964, the competition between the two nations' crewed space programs heated up, and talk of cooperation became less common, due to tense relations and military implications. Only later the United States and the Soviet Union slowly started to exchange more information and engage in joint programs, particularly in the light of the development of safety standards since 1970,[29] producing the co-developed APAS-75 and later docking standards. Most notably this signaled the ending of the first era of the space age, the Space Race, through the Apollo-Soyuz mission which became the basis for the Shuttle-Mir program and eventually the International Space Station programme.
Such international cooperation, and international spaceflight organization like most notably the European Space Agency, fueled by increasingly more countries achieving spaceflight capabilies and together with a since the 1980s established private spaceflight sector, allowed the formation of an international and commercial post-Space Race spaceflight economy and period, producing many individual firsts as well as space exploration discoveries, until competition started to rise again from the 2010s and by the early 2020s.
Private spaceflight and cost reduction (2010s to present)
Some have called it a New Space Race period,[31] particularly in light of China's speedy advances and other Asian countries competing in advancing their spaceflight achievements, creating an Asian Space Race.[32] Though international cooperation and international private spaceflight remains an integral part of the sector, but competitively diversifying commercial international contracting, such as international private human spaceflight of e.g. Axiom Space in cooperation with different countries and heavily relying on the International Space Station. Which also continued operation despite international confrontations like the Russian invasion of Ukraine, while private spaceflight, with Space-X's Starlink, became a significant element in the war and international politics.
Meanwhile, a range of new lunar spaceflight programs are being advanced especially as international programs, from the Artemis program and the China-Russian plans to establish a lunar base, to the European Space Agency pened Moon Village.
This competitive but international commercial development of the spaceflight sector has been called New Space.[33]
Until the 21st century, space programs of the United States were exclusively operated by government agencies. In the 21st century, several aerospace companies began efforts at developing a private space industry, with SpaceX being the most successful so far.[citation needed]
Project Mercury was the first human spaceflight program of the United States, running from 1958 through 1963. Its goal was to put a person into Earth orbit and return them safely, ideally before the Soviet Union. John Glenn became the first American to orbit the Earth on February 20, 1962, aboard the Mercury-Atlas 6.[34]
The Apollo program was the third human spaceflight program carried out by NASA. The program's goal was to orbit and land crewed vehicles on the Moon.[39] The program ran from 1969 to 1972. Apollo 8 was the first human spaceflight to leave Earth orbit and orbit the Moon on December 21, 1968.[40]Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin became the first men to set foot on the Moon during the Apollo 11 mission on July 20, 1969.[41]
The Skylab program's goal was to create the first space station of NASA. The program marked the last launch of the Saturn V rocket on May 14, 1973. Many experiments were performed on board, including unprecedented solar studies.[42] The longest crewed mission of the program was Skylab 4 which lasted 84 days, from November 16, 1973, to February 8, 1974.[43] The total mission duration was 2249 days, with Skylab finally falling from orbit over Australia on July 11, 1979.[44]
Although its pace slowed, space exploration continued after the end of the Space Race. The United States launched the first reusable spacecraft, the Space Shuttle, on the 20th anniversary of Gagarin's flight, April 12, 1981. On November 15, 1988, the Soviet Union duplicated this with an uncrewed flight of the only Buran-class shuttle to fly, its first and only reusable spacecraft. It was never used again after the first flight; instead, the Soviet Union continued to develop space stations using the Soyuz craft as the crew shuttle.[citation needed]
Sally Ride became the first American woman in space in 1983. Eileen Collins was the first female Shuttle pilot, and with Shuttle mission STS-93 in July 1999 she became the first woman to command a US spacecraft.The United States continued missions to the ISS and other goals with the high-cost Shuttle system, which was retired in 2011.[citation needed]
The Sputnik 1 became the first artificial Earth satellite on 4 October 1957. The satellite transmitted a radio signal, but had no sensors otherwise.[47] Studying the Sputnik 1 allowed scientists to calculate the drag from the upper atmosphere by measuring position and speed of the satellite.[48]Sputnik 1 broadcast for 21 days until its batteries depleted on 4 October 1957, and the satellite finally fell from orbit on 4 January 1958.[49]
The Luna programme was a series of uncrewed robotic satellite launches with the goal of studying the Moon. The program ran from 1959 to 1976 and consisted of 15 successful missions, the program achieved many first achievements and collected data on the Moon's chemical composition, gravity, temperature, and radiation. Luna 2 became the first human-made object to make contact with the Moon's surface in September 1959.[50] Luna 3 returned the first photographs of the far side of the Moon in October 1959.[51]
The Vostok Programme was the first Soviet spaceflight project to put Soviet citizens into low Earth orbit and return them safely. The programme carried out six crewed spaceflights between 1961 and 1963. The program was the first program to put humans into space, with Yuri Gagarin becoming the first man in space on April 12, 1961, aboard the Vostok 1.[52]Gherman Titov became the first person to stay in orbit for a full day on August 7, 1961, aboard the Vostok 2.[53]Valentina Tereshkova became the first woman in space on June 16, 1963, aboard the Vostok 6.[54]
The Voskhod programme began in 1964 and consisted of two crewed flights before the program was canceled by the Soyuz programme in 1966. Voskhod 1 launched on October 12, 1964, and was the first crewed spaceflight with a multi-crewed vehicle.[55]Alexei Leonov performed the first spacewalk aboard Voskhod 2 on March 18, 1965.[56]
The Salyut programme was the first space station program undertaken by the Soviet Union.[57] The goal was to carry out long-term research into the problems of living in space and a variety of astronomical, biological and Earth-resources experiments. The program ran from 1971 to 1986. Salyut 1, the first station in the program, became the world's first crewed space station.[58]
The Soyuz programme was initiated by the soviet space program in the 1960s and continues as the responsibility of roscosmos to this day. The program currently consists of 140 completed flights, and since the retirement of the US Space Shuttle has been the only craft to transport humans. The program's original goal was part of a program to put a cosmonaut on the Moon and later became crucial to the construction of the Mir space station.[citation needed]
Mir was the first continuously inhabited long-term research station in orbit and held the record for the longest continuous human presence in space at 3,644 days, until it was surpassed by the ISS on 23 October 2010.[59] It holds the record for the longest single human spaceflight, with Valeri Polyakov spending 437 days and 18 hours on the station between 1994 and 1995. Mir was occupied for a total of twelve and a half years out of its fifteen-year lifespan, having the capacity to support a resident crew of three, or larger crews for short visits.
The Buran programme (Russian: Буран, IPA:[bʊˈran], "Snowstorm", "Blizzard"), also known as the "VKK Space Orbiter programme" (Russian: ВКК «Воздушно-Космический Корабль», lit. 'Air and Space Ship'),[60] was a Soviet and later Russian reusable spacecraft project that began in 1974 at the Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute in Moscow and was formally suspended in 1993.[61] In addition to being the designation for the whole Soviet/Russian reusable spacecraft project, Buran was also the name given to orbiter 1K, which completed one uncrewed spaceflight in 1988 and was the only Soviet reusable spacecraft to be launched into space. The Buran-class orbiters used the expendable Energia rocket as a launch vehicle.
Recent space exploration has proceeded, to some extent in worldwide cooperation, the high point of which was the construction and operation of the International Space Station (ISS). At the same time, the international space race between smaller space powers since the end of the 20th century can be considered the foundation and expansion of markets of commercial rocket launches and space tourism.[citation needed]
The United States continued other space exploration, including major participation with the ISS with its own modules. It also planned a set of uncrewed Mars probes, military satellites, and more. The Constellation program, began by President George W. Bush in 2005, aimed to launch the Orion spacecraft by 2018. A subsequent return to the Moon by 2020 was to be followed by crewed flights to Mars, but the program was canceled in 2010 in favor of encouraging commercial US human launch capabilities.[citation needed]
Russia, a successor to the Soviet Union, has high potential but smaller funding. Its own space programs, some of a military nature, perform several functions. They offer a wide commercial launch service while continuing to support the ISS with several of their own modules. They also operate crewed and cargo spacecraft which continued after the US Shuttle program ended. They are developing a new multi-function Orel spacecraft for use in 2020 and have plans to perform human Moon missions as well.[citation needed]
The European Space Agency has taken the lead in commercial uncrewed launches since the introduction of the Ariane 4 in 1988 but is in competition with NASA, Russia, Sea Launch (private), China, India, and others. The ESA-designed crewed shuttle Hermes and space station Columbus were under development in the late 1980s in Europe; however, these projects were canceled, and Europe did not become the third major "space power".[citation needed]
The European Space Agency has launched various satellites, has utilized the crewed Spacelab module aboard US shuttles, and has sent probes to comets and Mars. It also participates in ISS with its own module and the uncrewed cargo spacecraft ATV.[citation needed]
Currently, ESA has a program for the development of an independent multi-function crewed spacecraft CSTS scheduled for completion in 2018. Further goals include an ambitious plan called the Aurora Programme, which intends to send a human mission to Mars soon after 2030. A set of various landmark missions to reach this goal are currently under consideration. The ESA has a multi-lateral partnership and plans for spacecraft and further missions with foreign participation and co-funding.
ESA is also developing Galileo program which seeks to give independence to the EU from the American GPS.[citation needed]
Since 1956 the Chinese have had a space program which was aided early on from 1957 to 1960 by the Soviets. "Dong Fang Hong I" was launched on 24 April 1970 and was the first satellite to be launched by the Chinese. With increased economy and technology strength in the following decades, especially since the early 21st century, China has made significant achievements in many aspects of space activities. It has developed a sizable family of Long March rockets, including Long March 5, the launch vehicle with the highest payload capacity in Asia since 2016[update]. China launched more than 140 spaceflights between 2015 and 2020.[62] China is operating multiple satellite systems, including communication, Earth imaging, weather forecast, ocean monitoring. BeiDou Navigation Satellite System, the satellite navigation system developed, launched, and operated by China, is one of the four core system providers of the International Committee on Global Navigation Satellite Systems.[63]
The US Pentagon released a report in 2006, detailing concerns about China's growing presence in space, including its capability for military action.[64] In 2007 China tested a ballistic missile designed to destroy satellites in orbit, which was followed by a US demonstration of a similar capability in 2008.[citation needed]
The China Manned Space Program, China's human spaceflight program, began in 1992. Following Shenzhou 5, the first successful crewed spaceflight mission in 2003 which made China the third country with independent human spaceflight capability, China has developed critical capabilities including EVA, space docking and berthing and space station. Currently, China's Tiangong Space Station is under construction and the phase one of the project is expected to be completed in 2022.[citation needed]
As the first step of distance outer space exploration, the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program was approved in 2004. It launched two lunar orbiters: Chang'e 1 and Chang'e 2 in 2007 and 2010 respectively. On 14 December 2013, China successfully soft-landedChang'e 3 Moon lander and its rover Yutu on the Moon's surface, becoming the first Asian country to do so. This was followed by Chang'e 4, the first soft landing on the far side of the Moon, in 2019 and Chang'e 5, the first lunar sample return mission conducted by an Asian country, in 2020, marking the completion of the three goals (orbiting, landing, returning) of the first stage of the program.[62] Starting from Chang'e 6, China wants to advance it plans in making a permanent International Lunar Research Station on the Moon.
China began its first interplanetary exploration attempt in 2011 by sending Yinghuo-1, a Mars orbiter, in a joint mission with Russia. Yet it failed to leave Earth orbit due to the failure of the Russian launch vehicle.[65] As a result, the Chinese space agency then embarked on its independent Mars mission. In July 2020, China launched Tianwen-1, which included an orbiter, a lander, and a rover, on a Long March 5 rocket to Mars. Tianwen-1 was inserted into Mars orbit on 10 February 2021, followed by a successful landing and deployment of the Zhurong rover on 14 May 2021, making China the second country in the world which successfully soft-landed a fully operational spacecraft on Mars surface.[citation needed]
France
Emmanuel Macron announced on 13 July 2019 the project to create a military command specialising in space, which would be based in Toulouse.[citation needed]
This command should be operational in September 2020 within the Air Force to become the Air and Space Force. Its purpose will be to strengthen France's space power in order to defend its satellites and deepen its knowledge of space. It will also aim to compete with other nations in this new place of strategic confrontation.[66]
Japan's space agency, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, is a major space player in Asia. While not maintaining a commercial launch service, Japan has deployed a module in the ISS and operates an uncrewed cargo spacecraft, the H-II Transfer Vehicle.[citation needed]
JAXA has plans to launch a Mars fly-by probe. Their lunar probe, SELENE, is touted as the most sophisticated lunar exploration mission in the post-Apollo era. Japan's Hayabusa probe was humankind's first sample return from an asteroid. IKAROS was the first operational solar sail.[citation needed]
Although Japan developed the HOPE-X, Kankoh-maru, and Fuji crewed capsule spacecraft, none of them have been launched. Japan's current ambition is to deploy a new crewed spacecraft by 2025 and to establish a Moon base by 2030.[citation needed]
Indian Space Research Organisation, India's national space agency, maintains an active space program. It operates a small commercial launch service and launched a successful uncrewed lunar mission dubbed Chandrayaan-1 in October 2007. India successfully launched an interplanetary mission, Mars Orbiter Mission, in 2013 which reached Mars in September 2014, hence becoming the first country in the world to do a Mars mission in its maiden attempt. On July 22, 2019, India sent Chandrayaan-2 to the Moon, whose Vikram lander crashed on the lunar south pole region on September 6.[citation needed]
Blue Origin made the first reusable space-capable rocket booster, New Shepard (it is suborbital, Falcon 9 was the first orbital). They also originally had the idea of landing rocket boosters on ships at sea, however, SpaceX replicated their idea and did it first. They lead the national team, which is designing a lunar lander and transfer vehicle (Integrated Lander Vehicle). They will contribute by modifying their Blue Moon lunar lander.[citation needed]
Bigelow Aerospace made the first commercial module in space (BEAM). They also designed and manufactured the first inflatable habitats in space (Genesis I and Genesis II). They also plan to make the first commercial space station around the moon (Lunar Depot), perhaps the first ever.[citation needed]
They make commercial resupply runs to the ISS with their Cygnus spacecraft. They also helped develop non-commercial spacecraft during the space race (Apollo LM as Grumman). They also are a part of the national team, led by Blue Origin which is designing a lunar lander and transfer vehicle (Integrated Lander Vehicle), partly based on Cygnus.[citation needed]
When founded, the company inherited the Atlas rocket family from Lockheed Martin and the Delta rocket family from Boeing. As of 2024, the Delta family has been retired and the Atlas V is in the process of being retired. ULA began development of the Vulcan Centaur in 2014 as replacement for both the Atlas and Delta rocket families. The Vulcan Centaur successfully completed its maiden flight in January 2024, after years of delays.
The primary customers of ULA are the Department of Defense (DoD) and NASA, but also serves commercial clients. In 2023, it was the third largest launch service provider as measured by the number launches, behind ArianeGroup and SpaceX.
As of May 2021[update], Arianespace had launched more than 850 satellites[79] in 287 launches over 41 years. The first commercial flight managed by the new entity was Spacenet F1 launched on 23 May 1984. Arianespace uses the Guiana Space Centre in French Guiana as its main launch site. It has its headquarters in Évry-Courcouronnes, Essonne, France.[80][81]
The company was founded in New Zealand in 2006.[90] By 2009,[91] the successful launch of Ātea-1[91] made the organization the first private company in the Southern Hemisphere to reach space.[90] The company established headquarters in California, US in 2013[92] and developed the expendable[93] Electron rocket.[94] The first launch of the rocket took place in May 2017.[95] In August 2020 the company launched its first in-house designed and built satellite, Photon.[96] In August 2021, the company became a public company, listed on the Nasdaqstock exchange through a SPAC merger.[97] In May 2022, after four years of development, the Electron booster attempted recovery by a helicopter.[98]In 2024, the company announced that a first stage booster that was recovered on an earlier launch will be reused on a future launch, marking the first time Electron would reuse the full first stage.[99]
Rocket Lab has acquired four companies to expand its space systems offering including Sinclair Interplanetary in April 2020,[102] Advanced Solutions Inc. in December 2021,[103] SolAero Holdings Inc in January 2022,[104] and Planetary Systems Corporation in December 2021.[105] As of June 2024, the company had approximately 2,000 full time permanent employees globally.[106] Approximately 700 of these employees are based in New Zealand with the remainder in the United States.[107] The acquisition of SolAero added 425 staff members in the United States in January 2022.[108][109] As of 2024, the company is developing the bigger Neutron reusable unibody rocket;[86] multiple spacecraft buses,[110] and rocket engines: Rutherford,[111]Curie,[112]HyperCurie,[113] and Archimedes.[114]In mid 2024, the company entered the engine test phase in Neutron’s development process.[115]
Tsiolkovsky, 1903, Exploration of Outer Space by Means of Rocket Devices
Goddard, 1919, A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes
Oberth, 1923, Die Rakete zu den Planetenräumen
^Project Mercury's first two flights were suborbital flights (listed below), while its latter four flights were orbital flights.
^Includes several special cases. Soyuz 1 and Soyuz 11 were both fatal missions which reached space. Soyuz 19 was the Soviet participant in the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, a separate craft from the American Apollo craft which is listed below. Soyuz 32 brought a crew to the Salyut 6 space station, but the crew returned on Soyuz 34, which had been sent to the station without a crew. Soyuz T-10a was an aborted launch attempt which failed to reach space. As orbital flights or committed attempts, all of the above are included in the number. The one crewed Soyuz flight not included in this number is Soyuz 18a, an aborted mission which nevertheless reached space as a suborbital flight, and which is therefore listed separately below.
^Shayler, David (3 June 2004). Walking in Space. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 4. ISBN9781852337100. Retrieved 19 January 2018 – via Google Books.
^Shayler, David (3 June 2004). Walking in Space. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 6. ISBN9781852337100. Retrieved 19 January 2018 – via Google Books.
^Dornberger, Walter (1984). Peenemünde. Moewig Dokumentation. Rastatt: Moewig. ISBN978-3-8118-4341-7.
^"The First Day In Orbit". Flight. 80 (2736). London: Iliffe Transport Publications: 208. 17 August 1961. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2019-06-03. Retrieved 2009-03-12.
Sparrow, Giles (2019). Spaceflight : the complete story, from Sputnik to Curiosity (Second [American] ed.). New York: Dorling Kindersley Limited. p. 82. ISBN978-1465479655.
^ abBoth the Apollo 11 Moon landing and the ASTP have been identified as the end of the Space Race,Samuels, Richard J., ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of United States National Security (1st ed.). SAGE Publications. p. 669. ISBN978-0-7619-2927-7. Most observers felt that the U.S. moon landing ended the space race with a decisive American victory. […] The formal end of the space race occurred with the 1975 joint Apollo-Soyuz mission, in which U.S. and Soviet spacecraft docked, or joined, in orbit while their crews visited one another's craft and performed joint scientific experiments.
^Kennedy, John F. (May 25, 1961). Special Message to Congress on Urgent National Needs (Motion picture (excerpt)). Boston, MA: John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum. Accession Number: TNC:200; Digital Identifier: TNC-200-2. Retrieved August 1, 2013.
^
Jaeger, Ralph-W.; Claudon, Jean-Louis (May 1986). Ariane — The first commercial space transportation system. Proceedings of the 15th International Symposium on Space Technology and Science. Vol. 2. Tokyo, Japan: AGNE Publishing, Inc. (published 1986). Bibcode:1986spte.conf.1431J. A87-32276 13-12.
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2021 horror film by Taylor Chien The ResortTheatrical release posterDirected byTaylor ChienWritten byTaylor ChienProduced by Will Meldman Sam Mobley Justin Chien Taylor Chien Quavious Marshall Starring Bianca Haase Brock O'Hurn Michael Vlamis Michelle Randolph CinematographyAdriaan KirchnerEdited byJoe HomokayMusic byJohn Fingazz StaryProductioncompanies Double Down Pictures Moonbase Distributed byVertical EntertainmentRelease date April 30, 2021 (2021-04-30) Running time75 minute…
Italian ice cream manufacturer You can help expand this article with text translated from the corresponding article in Italian. (June 2021) Click [show] for important translation instructions. View a machine-translated version of the Italian article. Machine translation, like DeepL or Google Translate, is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated t…
Vice president of the United States from 1949 to 1953 Alben W. BarkleyOfficial portrait, 194935th Vice President of the United StatesIn officeJanuary 20, 1949 – January 20, 1953PresidentHarry S. TrumanPreceded byHarry S. TrumanSucceeded byRichard NixonSenate Majority LeaderIn officeJuly 14, 1937 – January 3, 1947DeputyJ. Lister HillSherman MintonJ. Hamilton LewisPreceded byJoseph Taylor RobinsonSucceeded byWallace H. WhiteSenate Minority LeaderIn officeJanuary 3, 1947…
Constituency of Bangladesh's Jatiya Sangsad Mymensingh-7Constituencyfor the Jatiya SangsadDistrictMymensingh DistrictDivisionMymensingh DivisionElectorate315,508 (2018)[1]Current constituencyCreated1973PartyAwami LeagueMember(s)ABM Anisuzzaman Mymensingh-7 is a constituency represented in the Jatiya Sangsad (National Parliament) of Bangladesh since 2024 by independent ABM Anisuzzaman. Boundaries The constituency encompasses Trishal Upazila.[2][3] History The constituency …
Artikel ini sebatang kara, artinya tidak ada artikel lain yang memiliki pranala balik ke halaman ini.Bantulah menambah pranala ke artikel ini dari artikel yang berhubungan atau coba peralatan pencari pranala.Tag ini diberikan pada September 2016. Michael Hefele Informasi pribadiNama lengkap Michael HefeleTanggal lahir 01 September 1990 (umur 33)Tempat lahir Pfaffenhofen an der Ilm, Jerman BaratTinggi 1,92 m (6 ft 3+1⁄2 in)Posisi bermain BekInformasi klubKlub saat ini Gr…
UCI Europe Tour Généralités Sport Cyclisme sur route Création 2005 Organisateur(s) UCI Éditions 20 (en 2024) Périodicité Annuelle Lieu(x) Europe Participants UCI WorldTeamUCI ProTeamÉquipe continentale Statut des participants Professionnels Site web officiel uci.org Hiérarchie Hiérarchie Circuits continentaux Niveau supérieur UCI World Tour et UCI ProSeries Palmarès Tenant du titre Classement individuel : Tadej PogačarClassement par équipes : Lotto DstnyClassement par pay…
Istilah plastik mencakup produk polimerisasi sintetik atau semi-sintetik. Plastik terbentuk dari kondensasi organik atau penambahan polimer dan bisa juga terdiri dari zat lain untuk meningkatkan kualitas plastik. Ada beberapa polimer alami yang termasuk plastik. Plastik dapat dibentuk menjadi film atau fiber sintetik. Plastik didesain dengan variasi yang sangat banyak dalam properti yang dapat menoleransi panas, keras, ketahanan, dan lain-lain. Digabungkan dengan kemampuan adaptasinya, komposisi…
Untuk the book, lihat Liao-Fan's Four Lessons. Ini adalah nama Tionghoa; marganya adalah Liao. Liao FanLiao Fan dengan Silver Bear untuk Aktor Terbaik di Berlin pada 2014Lahir14 Februari 1974 (umur 50)Changsha, Hunan, TiongkokAlmamaterAkademi Teater ShanghaiPekerjaanPemeranTahun aktif1980–sekarangPasanganHuo Xin (霍昕)[1]Orang tuaLiao Bingyan (廖丙炎) Liao Fan Hanzi: 廖凡 Alih aksara Mandarin - Hanyu Pinyin: Liào Fán Liao Fan (Hanzi: 廖凡; lahir 14 Februari 197…
Indian freedom fighter (1870-1942) Matangini HazraBornMatangini Maity(1870-10-19)19 October 1870Tamluk, Bengal Presidency, British India (now West Bengal, India)Died29 September 1942(1942-09-29) (aged 72)Tamluk, Bengal Presidency, British IndiaCause of deathShot thrice by the British policeKnown forHumanitarian Activist and Martyr in the Indian independence movementMovementCivil Disobedience movementChowkidari tax bandha movementQuit India movement Matangini Hazra (19 October 1870…
State in western South America from 1836 to 1839 Peru–Bolivian ConfederationConfederación Perú-Boliviana1836–1839 Flag Emblem Motto: Firme por la UniónAnthem: National Anthem of Peru[a]Map of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation (including territorial claims)CapitalTacnaOfficial languagesSpanishConstituent countries North Peru South Peru Bolivia GovernmentConfederated presidential republicSupreme Protector • 28 October 1836 – 20 February 1839 Andrés de San…
Puerto Rico Open 1987 Sport Tennis Data 12 ottobre - 18 ottobre Edizione 5ª Superficie Cemento Campioni Singolare Stephanie Rehe Doppio Lise Gregory / Ronni Reis 1986 1988 Il Puerto Rico Open 1987 è stato un torneo di tennis giocato sul cemento. È stata la 5ª edizione del torneo, che fa parte del Virginia Slims World Championship Series 1987. Si è giocato a San Juan, in Porto Rico, dal 12 al 18 ottobre 1987. Indice 1 Campionesse 1.1 Singolare 1.2 Doppio 2 Collegamenti esterni Campionesse Si…
يسرد هذا الجدول الزمني لاكتشافات الفيزياء الأساسية وقوانين الطبيعة، بما في ذلك الاكتشافات التجريبية، والمقترحات النظرية التي تم تأكيدها تجريبيًا، والنظريات التي أثرت بشكل كبير على التفكير الحالي في الفيزياء الحديثة. غالبًا ما تكون هذه الاكتشافات عملية متعددة الخطوات ومت…
Weightlifting at the Olympics Men's 105 kgat the Games of the XXVII OlympiadVenueSydney Convention and Exhibition CentreDate25 SeptemberCompetitors21 from 18 nationsMedalists Hossein Tavakkoli Iran Alan Tsagaev Bulgaria Said Saif Asaad Qatar← 19962004 → Weightlifting at the2000 Summer OlympicsMenWomen56 kg48 kg62 kg53 kg69 kg58 kg77 kg63 kg85 kg69 kg94 kg75 kg105 kg+75 kg+105 kgvte Main article: Weightlifting at the 2000 Summer Olympics The men's…
Un cerotto contraccettivo del marchio OrthoEvra Il cerotto contraccettivo o cerotto transdermico è un metodo contraccettivo rivolto alle donne, consistente in un cerotto adesivo che contiene un insieme di farmaci, da applicare sulla cute del corpo. Indice 1 Funzionamento 2 Farmacocinetica 3 Applicazione 4 Efficacia 5 Note 6 Voci correlate 7 Altri progetti 8 Collegamenti esterni Funzionamento Questo metodo contraccettivo non risente delle condizioni che alterano l'assorbimento gastrointestinale,…