This collaboration included financial support, legal expertise, and grassroots activism, with many Jews taking leadership positions within the early NAACP.[2] The collaboration between Jews and African Americans helped each minority address legalized societal limits.[3]
About 50 percent of the civil rights attorneys in the South during the 1960s were Jews, as well as over 50 percent of the Whites who went to Mississippi in 1964 to challenge Jim Crow laws.[3][8] Many Jews, perceiving a shared history of persecution, identified with the struggles of African Americans and were motivated by a commitment to social justice. Many African Americans similarly identified with the struggles of the Jews in the Bible. Within organizations like the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), Jewish leaders such as Joel Elias Spingarn and his brother Arthur B. Spingarn were instrumental in shaping legal strategies and advocating for equal rights.[11] The Anti-Defamation League (ADL) expanded its mission beyond combating anti-Semitism to address all forms of discrimination.[12] Among the American Jewish Congress, leaders like Rabbi Joachim Prinz actively participated in key civil rights events, including the historic March on Washington in 1963.[13]
Major waves of Jewish immigration to the United States commenced in the 19th century, with the first notable wave featuring German-speaking Jews seeking economic opportunities and religious freedoms.[14] In the latter part of the 19th century and the early 20th century, a large number of Eastern European Jews arrived in America to flee persecution and economic hardships.[14] These immigrants, primarily Ashkenazi Jews, settled in urban areas such as New York City, often forming communities near Black neighborhoods.[15][16] Having faced anti-Semitism and now encountering Black people in their daily life, many Jews recognized and empathized with the struggles of African Americans.[17][18][19][20]
Jews in social justice movements prior to the civil rights movement
In the early 20th century, Jewish immigrants, particularly those from Eastern Europe, faced harsh working conditions in industries such as garment manufacturing. This led to Jewish participation in labor movements, advocating for fair wages and improved working conditions. The Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire in 1911, which claimed the lives of predominantly Jewish and Italian immigrant garment workers, galvanized the Jewish community's involvement in workers' rights. Jewish labor activists such as Clara Lemlich and Rose Schneiderman organized labor strikes and pushed for legislative reforms.[21]
NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People)
The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was established in 1909 in response to the widespread racial violence and discrimination against African Americans. At its inception, the NAACP aimed to dismantle institutionalized racism and secure civil rights for African Americans through legal means. Jewish individuals played a role in the formation and early leadership of the NAACP. Joel Elias Spingarn, a prominent Jewish scholar, educator, and civil rights advocate, served as the organization's chairman from 1914 to 1919.[24] His brother, Arthur B. Spingarn, also a key figure in the NAACP,[25] chaired the organization for two decades starting in 1919. The Spingarn brothers actively contributed to legal initiatives within the NAACP.[26] Joel Spingarn, in particular, used his legal acumen to shape the organization's strategies.[27] He was instrumental in advancing the NAACP's legal efforts, including its focus on anti-lynching legislation and educational equality.[28][29]
Jewish lawyers within the NAACP, such as Charles Houston, often referred to as the "man who killed Jim Crow,"[30] and Jack Greenberg who succeeded Thurgood Marshall as the head of the NAACP Legal Defense Fund, played critical roles in landmark cases like Brown v. Board of Education, which declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students to be unconstitutional.[31]Herbert Hill was the NAACP labor secretary from 1951 to 1977. He played a significant role in advancing the cause of economic justice and equality for African American workers.[32]
ADL (Anti-Defamation League)
The ADL's involvement in the civil rights movement included partnerships, legal interventions, opposition to hate groups, and educational initiatives.[33][34][35] Established in 1913, the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) originally focused on combatting antisemitism and defending the rights of Jews in the United States.[36] As its mission evolved, the ADL expanded its commitment to fighting all forms of discrimination. During the Civil Rights Movement, the ADL supported African American leaders and organizations, including Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. It initiated educational initiatives aimed at promoting tolerance and cooperation as a way to end racism.[33][34][37]
The ADL also offered financial and legal support to the civil rights movement. In a landmark move, the ADL filed an amicus curiae brief in the historic case of Brown v. Board of Education (1954).[38] This was pivotal in ending racial segregation in public schools.[39] The ADL also actively opposed segregationist organizations like the Ku Klux Klan, monitoring and exposing hate groups that promoted discrimination and violence against African Americans.[40][41][42]
American Jewish Congress
Founded in 1918, the American Jewish Congress (AJC) was committed to promoting social justice and equality, and actively engaged in various civil rights initiatives.[43]Stanley Levinson, a close friend and advisor to Martin Luther King, Jr, served on the Manhattan board of the AJC.[44] Rabbi Joachim Prinz, who served as the AJC's president from 1958 to 1966, emphasized the shared commitment to justice among diverse communities — most notably in his speech at the historic March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom in 1963, delivered just before King's iconic "I Have a Dream" address.[45][46][43]
Prominent Jewish activists
Rabbi Abraham Joshua Heschel
Rabbi Abraham Joshua Heschel, born in 1907 in Poland, was a prominent Jewish theologian and philosopher. Fleeing the Nazis, Heschel immigrated to the United States in 1940, where he became a noted Jewish scholar. He emphasized the spiritual and ethical dimensions of Judaism, advocating for social justice and interfaith understanding. In the 1960s, Rabbi Heschel marched alongside his friend Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. at key events in the civil rights movement such as the Selma to Montgomery march.[47] Heschel emphasized the moral and spiritual duty to confront injustice, once saying, "I felt my legs were praying" during the marches.[48][49]
Murder of Michael Schwerner and Andrew Goodman in Mississippi
On June 21, 1964, the trio were investigating the burning of a Black church when they were arrested by local law enforcement. Later that evening, they were released but were ambushed by members of the Ku Klux Klan.[50] The activists were brutally beaten and murdered, their bodies buried in an earthen dam.[50]
The deaths of Schwerner, Goodman and Chaney shocked the nation, and intensified the urgency of the Civil Rights Movement.[51] Outrage over the murders contributed to increased national attention on the struggles in the South and support for the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 — both aimed at dismantling segregation and ensuring the right to vote for African Americans.[52]
In 1967, seven men, including Klan leader Edgar Ray Killen, were convicted. Despite the convictions, it took decades for everyone responsible to face justice.[50]
Jack Greenberg
Jack Greenberg (1924–2016) was a distinguished American attorney and civil rights champion known for his leadership at the NAACPLegal Defense and Educational Fund (LDF) from 1961 to 1984. Succeeding Thurgood Marshall,[53][31] Greenberg's tenure marked a continuation of the LDF's commitment to strategic litigation for social change.
Rabbi Joachim Prinz, drawing from his experiences in Germany during Hitler's regime, empathized with the African-American struggle in the United States. During an exploratory visit in 1937 and upon his return to Germany, Prinz expressed his solidarity with African-Americans, emphasizing parallels between their plight and that of German Jews. Settling in Newark, a city with a significant minority community, Prinz spoke against discrimination from his pulpit, participated in protests across the U.S., and advocated against racial prejudice in various aspects of life.[55][56] At the 1960 AJC Convention, he said:
(As Jews), we work for freedom and equality. This is the heart of what we call the civil rights program....These are not mere words. These are the ideas which...have come to mean so much from the days when the author of third book of Moses coined that great sentence about liberty which is engraved upon the Liberty Bell in Philadelphia.[57]
As president of the American Jewish Congress (AJC), Prinz sought to position the organization prominently in the civil rights movement. He met with Martin Luther King Jr. in 1958, requesting support for a conference on integration at the White House. Speaking at the March on Washington in 1963, Prinz stressed the importance of speaking out against discrimination based on his experiences in Nazi Germany. His address preceded Martin Luther King Jr.'s famous "I Have a Dream" speech. There he said: "the most urgent, the most disgraceful, the most shameful and the most tragic problem is silence." Prinz remained involved in civil rights afterwards, and attended King's funeral in 1968 after his assassination.[57][56]
Despite the successes of the Civil Rights Era, however, tensions and challenges between the two communities still existed.[67] Political activist and philosopher Cornel West has argued that even during the Civil Rights Era there wasn't a time "free of tension and friction" between the two communities. He argues that today Black people tend to downplay the collaboration while Jews tend to romanticize it as a "golden age".[68]
Jeff Melnick, professor of American studies at UMass Boston, has argued that "the Black-Jewish alliance" is mostly a myth and that it sometimes leads to the assumption that African Americans "owe a debt for Jewish advocacy."[63] Hannah Labovitz has argued against romanticizing the era, saying "this is not a story about white Jews intervening to save the day after experiencing their own challenges, but rather one damaged community doing what it could to help another."[69]
Historian Melanie Kaye/Kantrowitz argues that only a few hundred non-Southern Jews took part in activism in the South, that both sides often failed to understand each other's point of view, and that the relationship was "frequently out of touch".[70] Political scientist Andrew Hacker points to a disparity between Blacks' and Jews' perceptions of events, highlighting the differences in tone and focus between the two communities.[71] Hacker also quotes Julius Lester, an African American convert to Judaism, who has argued that African Americans may reject the perceived paternalism of some Jews within the civil rights movement, noting that this can itself be seen as a form of "benevolent racism".[71]
Legacy
As the Civil Rights Movement progressed, differences in approach, priorities, and perspectives arose between African American and Jewish leaders. Some tensions were rooted in varying historical and cultural contexts, as well as differences in socio-economic status. As the 1960s unfolded, political and ideological shifts contributed to strains in the relationship, such as the rise of the Black power movement, increasing pro-Palestinian solidarity among African Americans, increasing support among American Jews for Israel after the 1967 war, and Israeli support for South Africa during apartheid.[60][72][61]
As Black people continued to face widespread discrimination and struggled to make progress in society, many Black activists became increasingly outspoken about issues such as affirmative action[73] that Jews often opposed because of their similarity to quotas.[74] Many Jews preferred meritocracy,[74] which Black activists often distrusted, feeling it had historically been used to exclude them.[75][73]
Many liberal Jews also began to move out of areas with increasing Black populations.[63] Cheryl Greenberg attributes this to the perceived "deterioration of their schools and neighborhoods" and fears of violence due to civil rights protests.[76] Some Jewish leaders also faced criticism from within their own communities for their perceived alignment with movements critical of Israel.[77] Meanwhile, some Black leaders felt that Jewish support for the civil rights movement was paternalistic or condescending,[71] or that Jewish racism was taken less seriously than Black antisemitism.[63]
Despite the challenges and tensions faced between Black activists and their Jewish allies during the civil rights movement, however, collaborations continued between both communities. In 1982, Representative John Lewis, a civil rights icon, joined forces with concerned citizens from Atlanta's Black and Jewish communities to campaign for the renewal of the Voting Rights Act.[10] Lewis marched alongside Jewish community members and co-established the Atlanta Black-Jewish Coalition, emphasizing open dialogue and partnership. Throughout his career, Lewis consistently spoke out against antisemitism, advocated for Israel, and supported the Soviet Jewry movement in the 1970s and 1980s.[10] His longstanding relationship with AJC included receiving various honors, and he served as a founding co-chair for the Congressional Caucus on Black-Jewish Relations.[10]
More recently, groups such as Rekindle, the Black/Jewish Justice Alliance, the Black Jewish Entertainment Alliance, and the Black and Jewish Leaders of Tomorrow have aimed to establish new cooperations between Black and Jewish Americans. In 2020, Georgia Senators Raphael Warnock (who preached at the same church as Martin Luther King, Jr.) and Jon Ossof both won their seats through a political alliance seen as a continuation of the "Grand Alliance". They were the first Black and first Jewish Senators in the state, respectively.[61]
In 2024, the Jewish Community Relations Council (JCRC) of the Jewish Federation of Greater Philadelphia and the Culture Changing Christians announced a new partnership called New Golden Age. The collaboration aims to strengthen links between the Black and Jewish communities, combat hate, and strengthen the local social security net.[62]
^Golden, Harry, "Negro and Jew: an Encounter in America", in Adams, Maurianne, Strangers & neighbors: relations between Blacks & Jews in the United States, 2000. p. 571
^Kaye/Kantrowitz, Melanie (2007). The colors of Jews: racial politics and radical diasporism. Indiana University Press, 2007. pp. 33, 36.
^ abcHacker, Andrews, "Jewish Racism, Black Anti-Semitism," in Adams, Maurianne (ed.), Strangers & neighbors: relations between Blacks & Jews in the United States, 2000. p. 22
^Greenberg, Cheryl Lynn (2006). Troubling the waters: Black-Jewish relations in the American century. Politics and society in twentieth-century America. Princeton (N.J.): Princeton University Press. ISBN978-0-691-05865-8.
Pegunungan Serayu Utara merupakan rangkaian gunung-gunung di Jawa Tengah yang terletak di sebelah selatan Jalur Pantura barat. Pegunungan ini memanjang dari barat, mulai sebelah selatan Kabupaten Brebes,Kabupaten Tegal, Kabupaten Pemalang, Kabupaten Pekalongan, Kabupaten Batang, Kabupaten Kendal,, sampai Kabupaten Semarang. Sisi selatannya mencakup bagian utara Kabupaten Banyumas, Kabupaten Purbalingga, Kabupaten Banjarnegara, Kabupaten Wonosobo, dan Kabupaten Temanggung. Pegunungan Serayu Utara…
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Chava AlbersteinInformasi latar belakangLahirSzczecin, Poland8 Desember 1947 (umur 76)AsalKiryat Haim, IsraelGenreFolkFolk rockYiddishTahun aktif1964-PresentLabelCBSNMCRounder RecordsAuvidisEMIShanachieMedia DirectsSitus webhttp://aviv2.com/chava/ Chava Alberstein (Ibrani: חוה אלברשטייןcode: he is deprecated , lahir 8 Desember 1947) adalah seorang penyanyi, komposer, pengarah musik berkebangsaan Israel. Pengawasan otoritas Umum Integrated Authority File (Jerman) ISNI 1 VIAF 1 Wo…
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Marvel ComicsJenisAnak perusahaan dari The Walt Disney CompanyIndustriPenerbitanGenrePahlawan super, kriminal, komedi, horor, misteri, romantis, fiksi ilmiah, perang, Western (budaya Barat)Didirikan1934 (sebagai Timely Comics)PendiriStan lee dan Martin GoodmanKantorpusat135 W. 50th Street, New York City, New YorkWilayah operasiSeluruh duniaProdukKomikPendapatanUS$125,700,000 (2007) Laba operasiUS$53,500,000 (2007) [1]PemilikThe Walt Disney CompanyIndukMarvel EntertainmentDivisiMarvel UKE…
Ongoing COVID-19 viral pandemic in Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha COVID-19 pandemic in Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da CunhaDiseaseCOVID-19Virus strainSARS-CoV-2LocationSaint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da CunhaArrival date24 December 2020(3 years, 3 months and 4 days)Confirmed cases42+[1]Active cases1Suspected cases‡7Recovered41+Deaths0Government websitehttps://www.ascension.gov.ac/government/news https://www.sainthelena.gov.sh/coronavirus-covid-1…
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1998 2014 Élections sénatoriales de 2008 dans le Gard 21 septembre 2008 Type d’élection Élections sénatoriales Postes à élire 3 sièges de sénateur Simon Sutour – PS Voix au 1er tour 651 39,91 % Voix au 2e tour 864 53,37 % Françoise Laurent-Perrigot – PS Voix au 1er tour 499 30,29 % Voix au 2e tour 753 46,51 % Jean-Paul Fournier – UMP Voix au 1er tour 637 39,06 % Voix au 2e tour 714 44,10 …
Drug used to treat depressive and anxiety disorders This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Opipramol – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (August 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) OpipramolClinical dataTrade namesInsidon, Pramolan, othersOther namesG-33040; RP-8307[…
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