This article is about the type of libertarianism stressing both individual freedom and social equality. For the socialist anti-authoritarian, anti-statist and libertarian philosophy, see Libertarian socialism.
Left-libertarians are skeptical of, or fully against, private ownership of natural resources, arguing, in contrast to right-libertarians, that neither claiming nor mixing one's labor with natural resources is enough to generate full private property rights, and they maintain that natural resources should be held in an egalitarian manner, either unowned or owned collectively.[8] Those left-libertarians who are more lenient towards private property support different property norms and theories, such as usufruct[9] or under the condition that recompense is offered to the local or even global community, such as the Steiner–Vallentyne school.[10][11] Other currents of thought identified with left-libertarianism include adherents of Henry George's land tax ideas and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's mutualism, as well as more recent forms of left-wing market anarchism (or market-oriented left-libertarianism).
The oldest, traditional, definition of "left-libertarianism" used it synonymously with social anarchism.[15] Seeking to distinguish themselves from the new generation of free-market libertarians, social anarchists began referring to themselves as "left-libertarians",[16] while the new adoptees of the term became known as "right-libertarians".[17]
At the same time as social anarchists began using the term to distinguish themselves from free-market libertarians, some of the advocates of free market economics that were associated with the New Left, including Roy Childs and Samuel Konkin, also began referring to themselves as "left-libertarians" in order to highlight themselves as the left-wing of the new free-market libertarian movement.[12] As anti-capitalist advocates of free-market economics, they used the term "left-libertarian" in order to distinguish themselves from the right-wing advocates of libertarian capitalism.[18]
While all libertarians begin with a conception of personal autonomy from which they argue in favor of civil liberties and a reduction or elimination of the state, left-libertarianism encompasses those libertarian beliefs that claim the Earth's natural resources belong to everyone in an egalitarian manner, either unowned or owned collectively.[3][4][8][10][11]
There are a number of different left-libertarian positions on the state, which can range from advocating for the complete abolition of the state, to advocating for a more decentralized and limited government with social ownership of the economy.[22] According to Sheldon Richman of the Independent Institute, other left-libertarians "prefer that corporate privileges be repealed before the regulatory restrictions on how those privileges may be exercised."[23]
Property rights
Left-libertarians generally uphold self-ownership and oppose strong private property rights, instead supporting the egalitarian distribution of natural resources.[24] Other left-libertarians believe that neither claiming nor mixing one's labor with natural resources is enough to generate full private property rights[25][26] and maintain that natural resources ought to be held in an egalitarian manner, either unowned or owned collectively.[27]
Political scientist Peter Mclaverty notes it has been argued that socialist values are incompatible with the concept of self-ownership when this concept is considered "the core feature of libertarianism" and socialism is defined as holding "that we are social beings, that society should be organised, and individuals should act, so as to promote the common good, that we should strive to achieve social equality and promote democracy, community and solidarity."[28] However, political philosopher Nicholas Vrousalis has also argued that "property rights [...] do not pass judgment as to what rights individuals have to their own person [...] [and] to the external world" and that "the nineteenth-century egalitarian libertarians were not misguided in thinking that a thoroughly libertarian form of communism is possible at the level of principle."[29]
Economics
Other left-libertarians make a libertarian reading of progressive and social-democratic economics to advocate a universal basic income. Building on Michael Otsuka's conception of "robust libertarian self-ownership", Karl Widerquist argues that a universal basic income must be large enough to maintain individual independence regardless of the market value of resources because people in contemporary society have been denied direct access to enough resources with which they could otherwise maintain their existence in the absence of interference by people who control access to resources.[30]
Bookchin was one of the main influences behind the formation of the Alliance 90/The Greens, the first green party to win seats in state and national parliaments. Modern green parties attempt to apply these ideas to a more pragmatic system of democratic governance as opposed to contemporary individualist or socialist libertarianism. The green movement, especially its more left-wing factions, is often described by political scientists as left-libertarian.[42][43][44][45]
Political scientists see European political parties such as Ecolo and Groen in Belgium, Alliance 90/The Greens in Germany, or the Green Progressive Accord and GroenLinks in the Netherlands as coming out of the New Left and emphasizing spontaneous self-organisation, participatory democracy, decentralization and voluntarism, being contrasted to the bureaucratic or statist approach.[45] Similarly, political scientist Ariadne Vromen has described the Australian Greens as having a "clear left-libertarian ideological base."[46]
Also referred to as left-wing market anarchists,[52] according to Sheldon Richman in The American Conservative, these proponents of this market-oriented left-libertarian approach strongly affirm the classical liberal ideas of self-ownership and free markets, while maintaining that, taken to their logical conclusions, these ideas support strongly anti-corporatist, anti-hierarchical, pro-labor positions in economics; anti-imperialism in foreign policy; and thoroughly liberal or radical views regarding such cultural issues as gender, sexuality and race.[23] Members of this school typically urge the abolition of the state, arguing that vast disparities in wealth and social influence result from the use of force—especially state power—to steal and engross land and acquire and maintain special privileges. They judge that in a stateless society the kinds of privileges secured by the state will be absent and injustices perpetrated or tolerated by the state can be rectified, concluding that with state interference eliminated it will be possible to achieve "socialist ends by market means."[53]
According to libertarian Sheldon Richman, left-libertarians "favor worker solidarity vis-à-vis bosses, support poor people's squatting on government or abandoned property, and prefer that corporate privileges be repealed before the regulatory restrictions on how those privileges may be exercised." Richman says left-libertarians see Walmart as a symbol of corporate favoritism, being "supported by highway subsidies and eminent domain", viewing "the fictive personhood of the limited-liability corporation with suspicion" and doubting that "Third Worldsweatshops would be the 'best alternative' in the absence of government manipulation." Richman also says left-libertarians also tend to "eschew electoral politics, having little confidence in strategies that work through the government [and] prefer to develop alternative institutions and methods of working around the state."[23]
Scholars representing this school of left-libertarianism often understand their position in contrast to right-libertarians, who maintain that there are no fair share constraints on use or appropriation that individuals have the power to appropriate unowned things by claiming them (usually by mixing their labor with them) and deny any other conditions or considerations are relevant and that there is no justification for the state to redistribute resources to the needy or to overcome market failures. A number of left-libertarians of this school argue for the desirability of some state social welfare programs.[62][34] Left-libertarians of the Carson–Long left-libertarianism school typically endorse the labor-based property rights that Steiner–Vallentyne left-libertarians reject, but they hold that implementing such rights would have radical rather than conservative consequences.[63]
Left-libertarians of the Steiner–Vallentyne type hold that it is illegitimate for anyone to claim private ownership of natural resources to the detriment of others.[21] These left-libertarians support some form of income redistribution on the grounds of a claim by each individual to be entitled to an equal share of natural resources.[64][65] Unappropriated natural resources are either unowned or owned in common and private appropriation is only legitimate if everyone can appropriate an equal amount or if private appropriation is taxed to compensate those who are excluded from natural resources.[65]
^Bookchin, Murray; Biehl, Janet (1997). The Murray Bookchin Reader. London: Cassell. p. 170. ISBN0304338737.
^ abCarlson, Jennifer D. (2012). "Libertarianism". In Miller, Wilbur R. The social history of crime and punishment in America. London: Sage Publications. p. 1007. ISBN1412988764. "Left-libertarians disagree with right-libertarians with respect to property rights, arguing instead that individuals have no inherent right to natural resources. Namely, these resources must be treated as collective property that is made available on an egalitarian basis".
^ abcVallentyne, Peter (March 2009). "Libertarianism". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2009 ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University. Archived from the original on 6 July 2019. Retrieved 5 March 2010. Libertarianism is committed to full self-ownership. A distinction can be made, however, between right-libertarianism and left-libertarianism, depending on the stance taken on how natural resources can be owned.
^ abNarveson, Jan; Trenchard, David (2008). "Left Libertarianism". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Cato Institute. pp. 288–289. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n174. ISBN978-1412965804. LCCN2008009151. OCLC750831024. Archived from the original on 2023-01-09. Retrieved 2016-03-18. Left libertarians regard each of us as full self-owners. However, they differ from what we generally understand by the term libertarian in denying the right to private property. We own ourselves, but we do not own nature, at least not as individuals. Left libertarians embrace the view that all natural resources, land, oil, gold, and so on should be held collectively. To the extent that individuals make use of these commonly owned goods, they must do so only with the permission of society, a permission granted only under the proviso that a certain payment for their use be made to society at large.
^Marshall, Peter (2009) [1991]. Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism (POLS ed.). Oakland, California: PM Press. p. 641. "Left libertarianism can therefore range from the decentralist who wishes to limit and devolve State power, to the syndicalist who wants to abolish it altogether. It can even encompass the Fabians and the social democrats who wish to socialize the economy but who still see a limited role for the State." ISBN978-1604860641.
^ abcdeRichman, Sheldon (2011-02-03). "Libertarian Left". The American Conservative. Archived from the original on 2023-01-01. Retrieved 2023-01-01.
^Carlson (2012). p. 1007. "[Left-libertarians] disagree with right-libertarians with respect to property rights, arguing instead that individuals have no inherent right to natural resources. Namely, these resources must be treated as collective property that is made available on an egalitarian basis."
^Narveson, Jan; Trenchard, David (2008). "Left Libertarianism". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Cato Institute. pp. 288–289. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n174. ISBN978-1412965804. LCCN2008009151. OCLC750831024. Archived from the original on 2023-01-09. Retrieved 2016-03-18. [Left libertarians] regard each of us as full self-owners. Left libertarians embrace the view that all natural resources, land, oil, gold, trees, and so on should be held collectively. To the extent that individuals make use of these commonly owned goods, they must do so only with the permission of society, a permission granted only under the provision that a certain payment for their use be made to society at large.
^Widerquist, Karl (2013). "What Good Is a Theory of Freedom That Allows Forced Labor? Independence and Modern Theory of Freedom". Independence, Propertylessness, and Basic Income: A Theory of Freedom as the Power to Say No Updating. New York City: Springer. pp. 121–143. ISBN978-1137313096.
^Kymlicka, Will (2005). "libertarianism, left-". In Honderich, Ted. The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. New York: Oxford University Press. "[Left-libertarians maintain that] the world's natural resources were initially unowned, or belonged equally to all, and it is illegitimate for anyone to claim exclusive private ownership of these resources to the detriment of others. Such private appropriation is legitimate only if everyone can appropriate an equal amount, or if those who appropriate more are taxed to compensate those who are thereby excluded from what was once common property."
^ abcFried, Barbara (Winter 2004). "Left-Libertarianism: A Review Essay". Philosophy & Public Affairs. 32 (1): 66–92. JSTOR3557982.
^ abcdeDeshpande, Meena; Vinod, M. J. (2000). Contemporary Political Theory. "Left-libertarianism". PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. p. 243. ISBN978-8120347137.
^Kerr, Gavin (2017). The Property-Owning Democracy: Freedom and Capitalism in the Twenty-First Century. Taylor & Francis. p. 94. ISBN978-1441153777.
^ abFried, Barba (2020). Facing Up to Scarcity: The Logic and Limits of Nonconsequentialist Thought. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 176. ISBN978-0198847878.
^King, J. E. (1983). "Utopian or scientific? A reconsideration of the Ricardian Socialists". History of Political Economy. 15 (3): 345–373. doi:10.1215/00182702-15-3-345.
^Thompson, Noel W. (1984). "Ricardian socialists/Smithian socialists: what's in a name?". The People's Science: The Popular Political Economy of Exploitation and Crisis 1816–34. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 82–110. ISBN0521893429.
^Ryley, Peter (2013). Making Another World Possible: Anarchism, Anti-capitalism and Ecology in Late 19th and Early 20th Century Britain. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 5. ISBN978-1441153777.
^Bookchin, Murray (1999). Biehl, Janet (ed.). The Murray Bookchin Reader. Black Rose Books. p. 170. ISBN1-55164-119-4. LCCN98-71026. The most creative feature of traditional anarchism is its commitment to four basic tenets: a confederation of decentralized municipalities; an unwavering opposition to statism; a belief in direct democracy; and a vision of a libertarian communist society. The most important issue that left-libertarianism -libertarian socialism no less than anarchism- faces today is: What will it do with these four powerful tenets? How will we give them social form and content? In what ways and by what means will we render them relevant to our time and bring them to the service of an organized popular movement for empowerment and freedom?
^Sullivan, Mark A. (July 2003). "Why the Georgist Movement Has Not Succeeded: A Personal Response to the Question Raised by Warren J. Samuels". The American Journal of Economics and Sociology. 62 (3). Blackwell Publishing: 612. doi:10.1111/1536-7150.00232. JSTOR3487815. In this, Tucker and George, the Anarchist and the Single Taxer, were in agreement-their respective positions can be seen as variations of libertarian socialism or, to borrow a label from Peter Valentyne and Hillel Steiner, Left-Libertarianism.
^Long, Roderick T. (Summer 1998). "Toward a libertarian theory of class". Social Philosophy and Policy. 15 (2): 305. "Unlike other socialists, they tend to see (to various different degrees, depending on the thinker) to be skeptical of centralized state intervention as the solution to capitalist exploitation [...]."
^McKay, Iain, ed. (2012) [2008]. "Appendix: Anarchism and 'anarcho'-capitalism". An Anarchist FAQ. Vol. I/II. Stirling: AK Press. ISBN978-1849351225.
^Carson, Kevin. "The Left-Rothbardians, Part I: Rothbard". Center for a Stateless Society. Archived from the original on 2019-09-24. Retrieved 2023-01-01. What most people ordinarily identify as the stereotypical "libertarian" privatization proposal, unfortunately, goes something like this: sell it to a giant corporation on terms that are most advantageous to the corporation. Rothbard proposed, instead, was to treat state property as unowned, and allowing it to be homesteaded by those actually occupying it and mixing their labor with it. This would mean transforming government utilities, schools and other services into consumer cooperatives and placing them under the direct control of their present clientele. It would mean handing over state industry to workers' syndicates and transforming it into worker-owned cooperatives.
^Chartier, Gary; Johnson, Charles W. (2011). Markets Not Capitalism. Brooklyn: Minor Compositions/Autonomedia. pp. 1–16.
^Chartier, Gary (2009). Socialist Ends, Market Means: Five Essays. Tulsa: Tulsa Alliance of the Libertarian Left.
^Ellerman, David (1992). Property and Contract in Economics: The Case for Economic Democracy. Cambridge MA: Blackwell.
^Ellerman, David (1990). The Democratic Worker-Owned Firm. London: Unwin Hyman.
^*Otsuka, Michael (2005). Libertarianism Without Inequality. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0199280186.
^Steiner, Hillel (1994). An Essay on Rights. Oxford: Blackwell.
^(2000). Left Libertarianism and Its Critics: The Contemporary Debate. In Vallentyne, Peter; and Steiner, Hillel. London:Palgrave.
^Van Parijs, Philippe (2009). Marxism Recycled. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
^Vallentyne, Peter (2007). "Libertarianism and the State". Liberalism: Old and New. In Paul, Ellen Frankel; Miller Jr., Fred; Paul, Jeffrey. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 199.
^Casal, Paula (2011). "Global Taxes on Natural Resources"(PDF). Journal of Moral Philosophy. 8 (3): 307–327. doi:10.1163/174552411x591339. Archived(PDF) from the original on 14 March 2014. Retrieved 14 March 2014. It can also invoke geoism, a philosophical tradition encompassing the views of John Locke and Henry George [...].
^Van Parijs, Phillippe (1998). Real Freedom for All: What (If Anything) Can Justify Capitalism? Oxford:Clarendon-Oxford University Press.
^Vallentyne, Peter; Steiner, Hillel (2000). The Origins of Left-Libertarianism. Basingstoke: Palgrave. ISBN978-0312235918.
^Vallentyne, Peter; Steiner, Hillel (2000). Left-Libertarianism and Its Critics. Basingstoke: Palgrave. p. 1. ISBN978-0312236991. OCLC1057919438.
^ abMack, Eric; Gaus, Gerald F. (2004). "Classical Liberalism and Libertarianism: The Liberty Tradition". In Gaus, Gerald F.; Kukathas, Chandran (eds.). Handbook of Political Theory. Sage. p. 128. ISBN978-0-7619-6787-3. Archived from the original on 2024-02-08. Retrieved 2023-01-29.
Bibliography
Carlson, Jennifer D. (2012). "Libertarianism". In Miller, Wilbur R. (ed.). The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America: An Encyclopedia. Sage Publications. p. 1005-1009. ISBN978-1412988766.
Long, Roderick T. (2012). "Anarchism". In Gaus, Gerald F.; D'Agostino, Fred (eds.). The Routledge Companion to Social and Political Philosophy. Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 217–230. ISBN978-0415874564.
Long, Roderick T. (2021). "The Anarchist Landscape". In Chartier, Gary; Van Schoelandt, Chad (eds.). The Routledge Handbook of Anarchy and Anarchist Thought. pp. 28–38. doi:10.4324/9781315185255-2. ISBN978-1-315-18525-5.
Vallentyne, Peter (2000). "Left-Libertarianism: A Primer" (full text; final draft). In Vallentyne, Peter; Steiner, Hillel (eds.). Left Libertarianism and Its Critics: The Contemporary Debate. Palgrave Publishers Ltd. pp. 1–20.
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Party position in the Australian Senate Whips have managed business and maintained party discipline for Australia's federal political parties in the Senate since Federation. The term has origins in the British parliamentary system. Though the Remuneration Tribunal and parliamentary website refer to the senior Labor and Liberal whips as chief whips and their junior whips as deputy whips, the parties tend to refer to the senior whips as whips when announcing their officeholders to the Senate.[…
Miss World 2017Tanggal18 November 2017TempatSanya City Arena, Sanya, Republik Rakyat Tiongkok[1]Pembawa acaraFernando Allende · Megan Young · Angela Chow · Frankie Cena · Barney Walsh · Steve DouglasPengisi acaraKristian KostovZiziJeffrey LiCeline TamPenyiaranLondon LiveDirecTVRCTI (siaran tunda)Peserta118Finalis/Semifinalis40DebutArmeniaLaosSenegalTidak tampilAntigua dan Barbuda · Belarus · Guinea-Bissa…