The following list is composed of objects, concepts, phenomena and processes that were discovered or invented by people from the Netherlands.
Discoveries
Archaeology
Java Man (Homo erectus erectus) (1891)
Java Man (Homo erectus erectus) is the name given to hominid fossils discovered in 1891 at Trinil – Ngawi Regency on the banks of the Solo River in East Java, Indonesia, one of the first known specimens of Homo erectus. Its discoverer, Dutch paleontologist Eugène Dubois, gave it the scientific name Pithecanthropus erectus, a name derived from Greek and Latin roots meaning upright ape-man.
Astronomy
Columba (constellation) (1592)
Columba is a small, faint constellation named in the late sixteenth century. Its name is Latin for dove. It is located just south of Canis Major and Lepus. Columba was named by Dutch astronomer Petrus Plancius in 1592 in order to differentiate the 'unformed stars' of the large constellation Canis Major. Plancius first depicted Columba on the small celestial planispheres of his large wall map of 1592. It is also shown on his smaller world map of 1594 and on early Dutch celestial globes.
Apus is a faint constellation in the southern sky, first defined in the late 16th century. Its name means "no feet" in Greek, and it represents a bird-of-paradise (once believed to lack feet). It first appeared on a 35 cm diameter celestial globe published in 1597 (or 1598) in Amsterdam by Plancius with Jodocus Hondius.
Indus represents an Indian, a word that could refer at the time to any native of Asia or the Americas.
Musca is one of the minor southern constellations. It first appeared on a 35-cm diameter celestial globe published in 1597 (or 1598) in Amsterdam by Plancius and Hondius. The first depiction of this constellation in a celestial atlas was in Johann Bayer's Uranometria of 1603.
Phoenix is a minor southern constellation, named after the mythical phoenix. It was the largest of the twelve.
Triangulum Australe is Latin for "the southern triangle", which distinguishes it from Triangulum in the northern sky and is derived from the almost equilateral pattern of its three brightest stars. It was first depicted on a celestial globe as Triangulus Antarcticus by Plancius in 1589, and later with more accuracy and its current name by Johann Bayer in his 1603 Uranometria.
Tucana is Latin for the toucan, a South American bird.
Volans represents a flying fish; its name is a shortened form of its original name, Piscis Volans.
Camelopardalis (constellation) (1612–1613)
Camelopardalis was created by Plancius in 1613 to represent the animal Rebecca rode to marry Isaac in the Bible. One year later, Jakob Bartsch featured it in his atlas. Johannes Hevelius gave it the official name of "Camelopardus" or "Camelopardalis" because he saw the constellation's many faint stars as the spots of a giraffe.
Monoceros (constellation) (1612–1613)
Monoceros is a relatively modern creation. Its first certain appearance was on a globe created by Plancius in 1612 or 1613. It was later charted by Bartsch as Unicornus in his 1624 star chart.
Rings of Saturn (1655)
In 1655, Huygens became the first person to suggest that Saturn was surrounded by a ring, after Galileo's much less advanced telescope had failed to show rings. Galileo had reported the anomaly as possibly 3 planets instead of one.
Titan (Saturn's moon) (1655)
In 1655, using a 50 power refracting telescope that he designed himself, Huygens discovered the first of Saturn's moons, Titan.
Discovery of evidence for galactic rotation (1904)
In 1904, studying the proper motions of stars, Dutch astronomer Jacobus Kapteyn reported that these were not random, as it was believed in that time; stars could be divided into two streams, moving in nearly opposite directions. It was later realized that Kapteyn's data had been the first evidence of the rotation of our Galaxy, which ultimately led to the finding of galactic rotation by Bertil Lindblad and Jan Oort.
The Oort constants (discovered by Jan Oort) and are empirically derived parameters that characterize the local rotational properties of the Milky Way.
Evidence of dark matter (1932)
In 1932, Dutch astronomer Jan Oort became the first person to discover evidence of dark matter. Oort proposed the substance after measuring the motions of nearby stars in the Milky Way relative to the galactic plane. He found that the mass of the galactic plane must be more than the mass of the material that can be seen. A year later (1933), Fritz Zwicky examined the dynamics of clusters of galaxies and found their movements similarly perplexing.
Discovery of methane in the atmosphere of Titan (1944)
The first formal proof of the existence of an atmosphere around Titan came in 1944, when Gerard Kuiper observed Titan with the new McDonald 82-inch (2.1 m) telescope and discovered spectral signatures on Titan at wavelengths longer than 0.6 μm (micrometers), among which he identified two absorption bands of methane at 6190 and 7250 Å (Kuiper1944). This discovery was significant not only because it requires a dense atmosphere with a significant fraction of methane, but also because the atmosphere needs to be chemically evolved, since methane requires hydrogen in the presence of carbon, and molecular and atomic hydrogen would have escaped from Titan's weak gravitational field since the formation of the Solar System.[8]
Discovery of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of Mars (1947)
Nereid, also known as Neptune II, is the third-largest moon of Neptune and was its second moon to be discovered, on 1 May 1949, by Gerard Kuiper, on photographic plates taken with the 82-inch telescope at McDonald Observatory.
Oort cloud (1950)
The Oort cloud or Öpik–Oort cloud, named after Dutch astronomer Jan Oort and Estonian astronomer Ernst Öpik, is a spherical cloud of predominantly icyplanetesimals believed to surround the Sun at a distance of up to 50,000 AU (0.8 ly). Further evidence for the existence of the Kuiper belt emerged from the study of comets. That comets have finite lifespans has been known for some time. As they approach the Sun, its heat causes their volatile surfaces to sublimate into space, gradually evaporating them. In order for comets to continue to be visible over the age of the Solar System, they must be replenished frequently.[9] One such area of replenishment is the Oort cloud, a spherical swarm of comets extending beyond 50,000 AU from the Sun first hypothesised by Dutch astronomer Jan Oort in 1950.[10] The Oort cloud is believed to be the point of origin of long-period comets, which are those, like Hale–Bopp, with orbits lasting thousands of years.
Kuiper belt (1951)
The Kuiper belt was named after Dutch-American astronomer Gerard Kuiper, regarded by many as the father of modern planetary science, though his role in hypothesising it has been heavily contested. In 1951, he proposed the existence of what is now called the Kuiper Belt, a disk-shaped region of minor planets outside the orbit of Neptune, which also is a source of short-period comets.
Biology
Function of the fallopian tubes (1660s)
Dutch physician and anatomist Regnier de Graaf may have been the first to understand the reproductive function of the fallopian tubes. He described the hydrosalpinx, linking its development to female infertility. de Graaf recognized pathologic conditions of the tubes. He was aware of tubal pregnancies, and he surmised that the mammalian egg traveled from the ovary to the uterus through the tube.
Development of ovarian follicles (1672)
In his De Mulierum Organis Generatione Inservientibus (1672), de Graaf provided the first thorough description of the female gonad and established that it produced the ovum. De Graaf used the terminology vesicle or egg (ovum) for what now called the ovarian follicle. Because the fluid-filled ovarian vesicles had been observed previously by others, including Andreas Vesalius and Falloppio, De Graaf did not claim their discovery. He noted that he was not the first to describe them, but to describe their development. De Graaf was the first to observe changes in the ovary before and after mating and describe the corpus luteum. From the observation of pregnancy in rabbits, he concluded that the follicle contained the oocyte. The mature stage of the ovarian follicle is called the Graafian follicle in his honour, although others, including Fallopius, had noticed it previously but failed to recognize its reproductive significance.
Foundations of microbiology (discovery of microorganisms) (1670s)
In 1981 the British microscopist Brian J. Ford found that Leeuwenhoek's original specimens had survived in the collections of the Royal Society of London.[22] They were found to be of high quality, and were all well preserved. Ford carried out observations with a range of microscopes, adding to our knowledge of Leeuwenhoek's work.[23]
Photosynthesis (1779)
Photosynthesis is a fundamental biochemical process in which plants, algae, and some bacteria convert sunlight to chemical energy. The process was discovered by Jan Ingenhousz in 1779.[24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34] The chemical energy is used to drive reactions such as the formation of sugars or the fixation of nitrogen into amino acids, the building blocks for protein synthesis. Ultimately, nearly all living things depend on energy produced from photosynthesis. It is also responsible for producing the oxygen that makes animal life possible. Organisms that produce energy through photosynthesis are called photoautotrophs. Plants are the most visible representatives of photoautotrophs, but bacteria and algae also employ the process.
Plant respiration (1779)
Plant respiration was also discovered by Ingenhousz in 1779.
Foundations of virology (1898)
Martinus Beijerinck is considered one of the founders of virology. In 1898, he published results on his filtration experiments, demonstrating that tobacco mosaic disease is caused by an infectious agent smaller than a bacterium. His results were in accordance with similar observations made by Dmitri Ivanovsky in 1892. Like Ivanovsky and Adolf Mayer, predecessor at Wageningen, Beijerinck could not culture the filterable infectious agent. He concluded that the agent can replicate and multiply in living plants. He named the new pathogenvirus to indicate its non-bacterial nature. This discovery is considered to be the beginning of virology.
where A is the electron acceptor. His discovery predicted that H2O is the hydrogen donor in green plant photosynthesis and is oxidized to O2. The chemical summation of photosynthesis was a milestone in the understanding of the chemistry of photosynthesis. This was later experimentally verified by Robert Hill.
Foundations of modern ethology (Tinbergen's four questions) (1930s)
Many naturalists have studied aspects of animal behaviour throughout history. Ethology has its scientific roots in the work of Charles Darwin and of American and German ornithologists of the late 19th and early 20th century, including Charles O. Whitman, Oskar Heinroth, and Wallace Craig. The modern discipline of ethology is generally considered to have begun during the 1930s with the work of Dutch biologist Nikolaas Tinbergen and by Austrian biologists Konrad Lorenz and Karl von Frisch.[37]
Tinbergen's four questions, named after Nikolaas Tinbergen, one of the founders of modern ethology, are complementary categories of explanations for behaviour. It suggests that an integrative understanding of behaviour must include both a proximate and ultimate (functional) analysis of behaviour, as well as an understanding of both phylogenetic/developmental history and the operation of current mechanisms.[38]
Flemish physician Jan Baptist van Helmont is sometimes considered the founder of pneumatic chemistry, coining the word gas and conducting experiments involving gases. Van Helmont had derived the word "gas" from the Dutch word geest, which means ghost or spirit.
Foundations of stereochemistry (1874)
Dutch chemist Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff is generally considered to be one of the founders of the field of stereochemistry. In 1874, Van 't Hoff built on the work on isomers of German chemist Johannes Wislicenus, and showed that the four valencies of the carbon atom were probably directed in space toward the four corners of a regular tetrahedron, a model which explained how optical activity could be associated with an asymmetric carbon atom. He shares credit for this with the French chemist Joseph Le Bel, who independently came up with the same idea. Three months before his doctoral degree was awarded Van 't Hoff published this theory, which today is regarded as the foundation of stereochemistry, first in a Dutch pamphlet in the fall of 1874, and then in the following May in a small French book entitled La chimie dans l'espace. A German translation appeared in 1877, at a time when the only job Van 't Hoff could find was at the Veterinary School in Utrecht. In these early years his theory was largely ignored by the scientific community, and was sharply criticized by one prominent chemist, Hermann Kolbe. However, by about 1880 support for Van 't Hoff's theory by such important chemists as Johannes Wislicenus and Viktor Meyer brought recognition.
Foundations of modern physical chemistry (1880s)
Jacobus van 't Hoff is also considered as one of the modern founders of the disciple of physical chemistry.[39] The first scientific journal specifically in the field of physical chemistry was the German journal, Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie, founded in 1887 by Wilhelm Ostwald and Van 't Hoff. Together with Svante Arrhenius, these were the leading figures in physical chemistry in the late 19th century and early 20th century.
The Prins reaction is an organic reaction consisting of an electrophilic addition of an aldehyde or ketone to an alkene or alkyne followed by capture of a nucleophile. Dutch chemist Hendrik Jacobus Prins discovered two new organic reactions, both now carrying the name Prins reaction. The first was the addition of polyhalogen compounds to olefins, was found during Prins doctoral research, while the others, the acid-catalyzed addition of aldehydes to olefinic compounds, became of industrial relevance.
Hafnium (1923)
Dutch physicist Dirk Coster and Hungarian-Swedish chemist George de Hevesy co-discovered Hafnium (Hf) in 1923, by means of X-ray spectroscopic analysis of zirconium ore. Hafnium' is named after Hafnia', the Latin name for Copenhagen (Denmark), where it was discovered.
Crystal bar process (1925)
The crystal bar process (also known as iodide process or the van Arkel–de Boer process) was developed by Dutch chemists Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer in 1925. It was the first industrial process for the commercial production of pure ductile metallic zirconium. It is used in the production of small quantities of ultra-pure titanium and zirconium.
In 1889, Dutch botanist Hugo de Vries published his book Intracellular Pangenesis, in which he postulated that different characters have different hereditary carriers, based on a modified version of Charles Darwin's theory of Pangenesis of 1868. He specifically postulated that inheritance of specific traits in organisms comes in particles. He called these units pangenes.
Rediscovery the laws of inheritance (1900)
1900 marked the "rediscovery of Mendelian genetics". The significance of Gregor Mendel's work was not understood until early in the twentieth century, after his death, when his research was re-discovered by Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns and Erich von Tschermak, who were working on similar problems.[42] They were unaware of Mendel's work. They worked independently on different plant hybrids, and came to Mendel's conclusions about the rules of inheritance.
Christiaan Huygens stated what is now known as the second of Newton's laws of motion in a quadratic form.[54] In 1659 he derived the now standard formula for the centripetal force, exerted by an object describing a circular motion, for instance on the string to which it is attached.[55][56][57][58][59][60][61] In modern notation:
with m the mass of the object, v the velocity and r the radius. The publication of the general formula for this force in 1673 was a significant step in studying orbits in astronomy. It enabled the transition from Kepler's third law of planetary motion, to the inverse square law of gravitation.[62]
Centrifugal force (1659)
Huygens coined the term centrifugal force in his 1659 De Vi Centrifiga and wrote of it in his 1673 Horologium Oscillatorium on pendulums.
Formula for the period of mathematical pendulum (1659)
with T the period, l the length of the pendulum and g the gravitational acceleration. By his study of the oscillation period of compound pendulums Huygens made contributions to the development of the concept of moment of inertia.
Tautochrone curve (isochrone curve) (1659)
A tautochrone or isochrone curve is the curve for which the time taken by an object sliding without friction in uniform gravity to its lowest point is independent of its starting point. The curve is a cycloid, and the time is equal to π times the square root of the radius over the acceleration of gravity. Christiaan Huygens was the first to discover the tautochronous property (or isochronous property) of the cycloid.[70] The tautochrone problem, the attempt to identify this curve, was solved by Christiaan Huygens in 1659. He proved geometrically in his Horologium Oscillatorium, originally published in 1673, that the curve was a cycloid. Huygens also proved that the time of descent is equal to the time a body takes to fall vertically the same distance as the diameter of the circle which generates the cycloid, multiplied by π⁄2. The tautochrone curve is the same as the brachistochrone curve for any given starting point. Johann Bernoulli posed the problem of the brachistochrone to the readers of Acta Eruditorum in June, 1696. He published his solution in the journal in May of the following year, and noted that the solution is the same curve as Huygens's tautochrone curve.[71][72]
Christiaan Huygens observed that two pendulum clocks mounted next to each other on the same support often become synchronized, swinging in opposite directions. In 1665, he reported the results by letter to the Royal Society of London. It is referred to as "an odd kind of sympathy" in the Society's minutes. This may be the first published observation of what is now called coupled oscillations. In the 20th century, coupled oscillators took on great practical importance because of two discoveries: lasers, in which different atoms give off light waves that oscillate in unison, and superconductors, in which pairs of electrons oscillate in synchrony, allowing electricity to flow with almost no resistance. Coupled oscillators are even more ubiquitous in nature, showing up, for example, in the synchronized flashing of fireflies and chirping of crickets, and in the pacemaker cells that regulate heartbeats.
Medicine
Foundations of modern (human) anatomy (1543)
Flemish anatomist and physician Andreas Vesalius is often referred to as the founder of modern human anatomy for the publication of the seven-volume De humani corporis fabrica (On the Structure of the Human Body) in 1543.
Crystals in gouty tophi (1679)
In 1679, van Leeuwenhoek used a microscopes to assess tophaceous material and found that gouty tophi consist of aggregates of needle-shaped crystals, and not globules of chalk as was previously believed.
Boerhaave syndrome (1724)
Boerhaave syndrome (also known as spontaneous esophageal perforation or esophageal rupture) refers to an esophageal rupture secondary to forceful vomiting. Originally described in 1724 by Dutch physician/botanist Herman Boerhaave, it is a rare condition with high mortality. The syndrome was described after the case of a Dutch admiral, Baron Jan von Wassenaer, who died of the condition.
Factor V Leiden (1994)
Factor V Leiden is an inherited disorder of blood clotting. It is a variant of human factor V that causes a hypercoagulability disorder. It is named after the city Leiden, where it was first identified by R. Bertina, et al., in 1994.
Microbiology
Blood cells (1658)
In 1658 Dutch naturalist Jan Swammerdam was the first person to observe red blood cells under a microscope and in 1695, microscopistAntoni van Leeuwenhoek, also Dutch, was the first to draw an illustration of "red corpuscles", as they were called. No further blood cells were discovered until 1842 when the platelets were discovered.
Red blood cells (1658)
The first person to observe and describe red blood cells was Dutch biologist Jan Swammerdam, who had used an early microscope to study the blood of a frog.
Micro-organisms (1670s)
A resident of Delft, Anton van Leeuwenhoek, used a high-power single-lens simple microscope to discover the world of micro-organisms. His simple microscopes were made of silver or copper frames, holding hand-ground lenses were capable of magnification up to 275 times. Using these he was the first to observe and describe single-celled organisms, which he originally referred to as animalcules, and which now referred to as micro-organisms or microbes.[73][74][75]
Bacteria (1676) – The first bacteria were observed by van Leeuwenhoek in 1676 using his single-lens microscope.[76][77][78][79][80] He described the creatures he saw as small creatures. The name bacterium was introduced much later, by Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg in 1828, derived from the Greek word βακτηριον meaning "small stick". Because of the difficulty in describing individual bacteria and the importance of their discovery, the study of bacteria is generally that of the study of microbiology.
Spermatozoa (1677) – A spermatozoon or spermatozoon (pl. spermatozoa), from the ancient Greekσπερμα (seed) and ζων (alive) and more commonly known as a sperm cell, is the haploidcell that is the male gamete. Sperm cells were first observed by a student of van Leeuwenhoek in 1677. Leeuwenhoek pictured sperm cells with great accuracy.
Azotobacter is a genus of usually motile, oval or spherical bacteria that form thick-walled cysts and may produce large quantities of capsular slime. They are aerobic, free-living soil microbes which play an important role in the nitrogen cycle in nature, binding atmospheric nitrogen, which is inaccessible to plants, and releasing it in the form of ammonium ions into the soil. Apart from being a model organism, it is used by humans for the production of biofertilizers, food additives, and some biopolymers. The first representative of the genus, Azotobacter chroococcum, was discovered and described in 1901 by the Dutch microbiologist and botanist Martinus Beijerinck.
Enrichment culture (1904)
Beijerinck is credited with developing the first enrichment culture, a fundamental method of studying microbes from the environment.
Physics
31 equal temperament (1661)
Division of the octave into 31 steps arose naturally out of Renaissance music theory; the lesser diesis – the ratio of an octave to three major thirds, 128:125 or 41.06 cents – was approximately a fifth of a tone and a third of a semitone. In 1666, Lemme Rossi first proposed an equal temperament of this order. Shortly thereafter, having discovered it independently, scientist Christiaan Huygens wrote about it also. Since the standard system of tuning at that time was quarter-comma meantone, in which the fifth is tuned to 51/4, the appeal of this method was immediate, as the fifth of 31-et, at 696.77 cents, is only 0.19 cent wider than the fifth of quarter-comma meantone. Huygens not only realized this, he went farther and noted that 31-ET provides an excellent approximation of septimal, or 7-limit harmony. In the twentieth century, physicist, music theorist and composer Adriaan Fokker, after reading Huygens's work, led a revival of interest in this system of tuning which led to a number of compositions, particularly by Dutch composers. Fokker designed the Fokker organ, a 31-tone equal-tempered organ, which was installed in Teyler's Museum in Haarlem in 1951.
Bernoulli's principle was discovered by Dutch-Swiss mathematician and physicist Daniel Bernoulli and named after him. It states that for an inviscid flow, an increase in the speed of the fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy.
Brownian motion (1785)
In 1785, Ingenhousz described the irregular movement of coal dust on the surface of alcohol and therefore has a claim as discoverer of what came to be known as Brownian motion.
Buys Ballot's law (1857)
The law takes its name from Dutch meteorologist C. H. D. Buys Ballot, who published it in the Comptes Rendus, in November 1857. While William Ferrel first theorized this in 1856, Buys Ballot was the first to provide an empirical validation. The law states that in the Northern Hemisphere, if a person stands with his back to the wind, the low pressure area will be on his left, because wind travels counterclockwise around low pressure zones in that hemisphere. this is approximately true in the higher latitudes and is reversed in the Southern Hemisphere.
Foundations of molecular physics (1873)
Spearheaded by Mach and Ostwald, a strong philosophical current that denied the existence of molecules arose towards the end of the 19th century. The molecular existence was considered unproven and the molecular hypothesis unnecessary. At the time Van der Waals' thesis was written (1873), the molecular structure of fluids had not been accepted by most physicists, and liquid and vapor were often considered as chemically distinct. But Van der Waals's work affirmed the reality of molecules and allowed an assessment of their size and attractive strength.[96] By comparing his equation of state with experimental data, Van der Waals was able to obtain estimates for the actual size of molecules and the strength of their mutual attraction.[97] By introducing parameters characterizing molecular size and attraction in constructing his equation of state, Van der Waals set the tone for molecular physics (molecular dynamics in particular) of the 20th century. That molecular aspects such as size, shape, attraction, and multipolar interactions should form the basis for mathematical formulations of the thermodynamic and transport properties of fluids is presently considered an axiom.[98]
Van der Waals equation of state (1873)
In 1873, J. D. van der Waals introduced the first equation of state derived by the assumption of a finite volume occupied by the constituent molecules.[99] The Van der Waals equation is generally regarded as the first somewhat realistic equation of state (beyond the ideal gas law). Van der Waals noted the non-ideality of gases and attributed it to the existence of molecular or atomic interactions. His new formula revolutionized the study of equations of state, and was most famously continued via the Redlich-Kwong equation of state (1949) and the Soave modification of Redlich-Kwong. While the Van der Waals equation is definitely superior to the ideal gas law and does predict the formation of a liquid phase, the agreement with experimental data is limited for conditions where the liquid forms. Except at higher pressures, the real gases do not obey Van der Waals equation in all ranges of pressures and temperatures. Despite its limitations, the equation has historical importance, because it was the first attempt to model the behaviour of real gases.
The law of corresponding states was first suggested and formulated by van der Waals in 1880. This showed that the van der Waals equation of state can be expressed as a simple function of the critical pressure, critical volume and critical temperature. This general form is applicable to all substances. The compound-specific constants a and b in the original equation are replaced by universal (compound-independent) quantities. It was this law that served as a guide during experiments which ultimately led to the liquefaction of hydrogen by James Dewar in 1898 and of helium by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes in 1908.
Lorentz ether theory (1892)
Lorentz ether theory has its roots in Hendrik Lorentz's "theory of electrons", which was the final point in the development of the classical aether theories at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th century. Lorentz's initial theory created in 1892 and 1895 was based on a completely motionless aether. Many aspects of Lorentz's theory were incorporated into special relativity with the works of Albert Einstein and Hermann Minkowski.
Lorentz force law (1892)
In 1892, Hendrik Lorentz derived the modern form of the formula for the electromagnetic force which includes the contributions to the total force from both the electric and the magnetic fields.[101][102][103] In many textbook treatments of classical electromagnetism, the Lorentz force law is used as the definition of the electric and magnetic fields E and B.[104][105][106] To be specific, the Lorentz force is understood to be the following empirical statement:
The electromagnetic force F on a test charge at a given point and time is a certain function of its charge q and velocity v, which can be parameterized by exactly two vectors E and B, in the functional form:
In physics, the Lorentz transformation (or Lorentz transformations) is named after the Dutch physicist Hendrik Lorentz. It was the result of attempts by Lorentz and others to explain how the speed of light was observed to be independent of the reference frame, and to understand the symmetries of the laws of electromagnetism. The Lorentz transformation is in accordance with special relativity, but was derived before special relativity. Early approximations of the transformation were published by Lorentz in 1895. In 1905, Poincaré was the first to recognize that the transformation has the properties of a mathematical group, and named it after Lorentz.
The Zeeman effect, named after the Dutch physicist Pieter Zeeman, is the effect of splitting a spectral line into several components in the presence of a static magnetic field. It is analogous to the Stark effect, the splitting of a spectral line into several components in the presence of an electric field. Also similar to the Stark effect, transitions between different components have, in general, different intensities, with some being entirely forbidden (in the dipole approximation), as governed by the selection rules.
In 1926, Onnes' student, Dutch physicist Willem Hendrik Keesom, invented a method
to freeze liquid helium and was the first person who was able to solidify the noble gas.
In quantum field theory, the Casimir effect and the Casimir–Polder force are physical forces arising from a quantized field. Dutch physicists Hendrik Casimir and Dirk Polder at Philips Research Labs proposed the existence of a force between two polarizable atoms and between such an atom and a conducting plate in 1947. After a conversation with Niels Bohr who suggested it had something to do with zero-point energy, Casimir alone formulated the theory predicting a force between neutral conducting plates in 1948; the former is called the Casimir–Polder force while the latter is the Casimir effect in the narrow sense.
Tellegen's theorem (1952)
Tellegen's theorem is one of the most powerful theorems in network theory. Most of the energy distribution theorems and extremum principles in network theory can be derived from it. It was published in 1952 by Bernard Tellegen. Fundamentally, Tellegen's theorem gives a simple relation between magnitudes that satisfy Kirchhoff's laws of electrical circuit theory.
In 1971, Gerardus 't Hooft, who was completing his PhD under the supervision of Dutch theoretical physicist Martinus Veltman, renormalizedYang–Mills theory. They showed that if the symmetries of Yang–Mills theory were to be realized in the spontaneously broken mode, referred to as the Higgs mechanism, then Yang–Mills theory can be renormalized.[122][123] Renormalization of Yang–Mills theory is considered as a major achievement of twentieth century physics.
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^R. de L. Kronig (1926). "On the theory of the dispersion of X-rays". J. Opt. Soc. Am. 12 (6): 547–57. doi:10.1364/JOSA.12.000547.
^H.A. Kramers (1927). "La diffusion de la lumiere par les atomes". Atti Cong. Intern. Fisici, (Transactions of Volta Centenary Congress) Como. 2: 545–57.
^Hesseling, Dennis E. (2003). Gnomes in the Fog: The Reception of Brouwer's Intuitionism in the 1920s. (Birkhäuser Verlag)
^Van Atten, Mark; Boldini, Pascal; Bourdeau, Michel; Heinzmann, Gerhard (2008). One Hundred Years of Intuitionism (1907–2007). (Birkhäuser Verlag)
^Soderblom, J.; Belliii, J.; Hubbard, M.; Wolff, M. (2006). "Martian phase function: Modeling the visible to near-infrared surface photometric function using HST-WFPC2 data". Icarus. 184 (2): 401–23. Bibcode:2006Icar..184..401S. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2006.05.006.
^Westfall, Richard S. (1971). The Construction of Modern Science: Mechanisms and Mechanics, p. 130
^Gindikin, Semyon Grigorevich (1988). Tales of Physicists and Mathematicians, p. 86–87
^Jammer, Max (1997). Concepts of Mass in Classical and Modern Physics, p. 62–63
^Jammer, Max (1999). Concepts of Force: A Study in the Foundations of Dynamics, p. 109–10
^Graneau, Peter; Graneau Neal (2006). In the Grip of the Distant Universe: The Science of Inertia, p. 111–12
^Ginzburg, Vladimir B.; Ginzburg, Tatyana V. (2007). Prime Elements of Ordinary Matter, Dark Matter & Dark Energy: Beyond Standard Model & String Theory, p. 82–83
^Barbour, Julian B. (1989). Absolute or Relative Motion?: Volume 1, The Discovery of Dynamics: A Study from a Machian Point of View of the Discovery and the Structure of Dynamical Theories, p. 454
^Matthews, Michael; Gauld, Colin F.; Stinner, Arthur (2006). The Pendulum: Scientific, Historical, Philosophical and Educational Perspectives, p. 9–10
^Ginzburg, Vladimir B.; Ginzburg, Tatyana V. (2007). Prime Elements of Ordinary Matter, Dark Matter & Dark Energy: Beyond Standard Model & String Theory, p. 82
^Snygg, John (2011). A New Approach to Differential Geometry using Clifford's Geometric Algebra, p. 195–202
^Kautz, Richard (2011). Chaos: The Science of Predictable Random Motion, p. 69–70
^Filippov, Aleksandr T. (2011). The Versatile Soliton, p. 68–69
^Simonyi, Károly (2012). A Cultural History of Physics, p. 240–55
^Knoebel, Arthur; Laubenbacher, Reinhard; Lodder, Jerry; Pengelley, David (2007). Mathematical Masterpieces: Further Chronicles by the Explorers. (Springer), p. 169.
^Struik, Dirk Jan (1986). A Source Book in Mathematics, 1200–1800. (Princeton University Press), p. 392
^Farouki, Rida T. (2007). Pythagorean-Hodograph Curves: Algebra and Geometry Inseparable. (Springer), p. 161.
^Ruestow, Edward G. (1996). The Microscope in the Dutch Republic: The Shaping of Discovery
^Huerta, Robert D. (2003). Giants of Delft: Johannes Vermeer and the Natural Philosophers: the Parallel Search for Knowledge During the Age of Discovery
^Burgess, Jeremy; Marten, Michael; Taylor, Rosemary (1990). Under the Microscope: A Hidden World Revealed, p. 186
^Maczulak, Anne (2010). Allies and Enemies: How the World Depends on Bacteria, p. 1–2
^Fensham, Peter J.; Gunstone, Richard F.; White, Richard Thomas (1994). The Content of Science: A Constructivist Approach to Its Teaching and Learning, p. 164
^Haven, Kendall (2007). 100 Greatest Science Discoveries of All Time, p. 29–30
^Rogers, Kara (2011). Bacteria and Viruses (Biochemistry, Cells, and Life), p. 1–3
^Goes, Frank Joseph (2013). The Eye in History, p. 338–41
^J.A. Wheeler; C. Misner; K.S. Thorne (1973). Gravitation. W.H. Freeman & Co. pp. 72–73. ISBN978-0-7167-0344-0.. These authors use the Lorentz force in tensor form as definer of the electromagnetic tensorF, in turn the fields E and B.
Kesultanan Tallo1460–1760StatusNegara Berdaulat(1470–1510)Vasal Gowa[1](1510–1520)Negara Berdaulat[2](1520–1528)Kerajaan Gowa-Tallo(1528–1607)Kesultanan Gowa-Tallo(1607–1760)Ibu kotaTalloPendirian• Kerajaan Gowa terbagi dua, Atas hasil kesepakatan majelis Bate Salapang 1460• Ekspedisi Ke Nusantara Bagian Barat 1470[a]• Karaeng Samarluka kembali melancarkan sebuah ekspedisi laut 1500[b] Didahului oleh Digantikan oleh krjKerajaan Gow…
Untuk parasit, lihat parasit. Kapsul Apollo 15 mendarat dengan menggunakan parasut. Parasut atau payung udara[1] adalah suatu perangkat dari tekstil lembut yang digunakan untuk memperlambat gerakan suatu objek di atmosfer dengan menciptakan seretan (drag). Parasut umumnya digunakan untuk memperlambat gerak turun seseorang atau suatu objek ke Bumi. Parasut drogue juga kadang digunakan untuk membantu penurunan percepatan horizontal suatu kendaraan (pesawat terbang atau pesawat ulang alik s…
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Railway station in New Zealand Western HuttMetlink suburban railGeneral informationLocationHutt Road, Alicetown, Lower Hutt, New ZealandCoordinates41°12′43.22″S 174°53′23.48″E / 41.2120056°S 174.8898556°E / -41.2120056; 174.8898556Owned byBuilding is privately owned as a pub, platform owned by KiwiRailLine(s)Melling BranchPlatformsIsland (formerly)Tracks1ConstructionPlatform levels1Other informationFare zone4HistoryOpened14 April 1874Rebuilt1892, 1906Electrifi…
This article is about the oxidation reaction. For the oxidizing reagent, see Dess–Martin periodinane. Dess–Martin oxidation Named after Daniel Benjamin Dess James Cullen Martin Reaction type Organic redox reaction Identifiers Organic Chemistry Portal dess-martin-oxidation RSC ontology ID RXNO:0000256 The Dess–Martin oxidation is an organic reaction for the oxidation of primary alcohols to aldehydes and secondary alcohols to ketones using Dess–Martin periodinane.[1][2] It …
2019 filmThe Weasel's TaleTheatrical release posterSpanishEl cuento de las comadrejas Directed byJuan José CampanellaScreenplay byJuan José CampanellaDarren KloomokBased onYesterday's Guys Used No Arsenicby José Martínez Suárez & Augusto GiustozziProduced byAxel KuschevatzkyMuriel CabezaPierluigi GazzoloGerardo HerreroMariela BesuievskiJuan José CampanellaStarring Graciela Borges Oscar Martínez Luis Brandoni Marcos Mundstock Clara Lago Nicolás Francella Edited byJuan José Campan…
Villa Unión adalah salah satu dari 38 kota praja di Coahuila, timur laut Meksiko. Kursi munisipalnya berada di Villa Unión. Kota praja tersebut memiliki luas 1540.3 km². Pada 2005, kota praja tersebut memiliki jumlah penduduk 6,138.[1] Referensi ^ Villa Unión. Enciclopedia de los Municipios de México. Instituto Nacional para el Federalismo y el Desarrollo Municipal. Diakses tanggal November 9, 2008. [pranala nonaktif permanen] lbs Negara bagian CoahuilaSaltillo (ib…
CarcharhinusRentang fosil: Lutetium-sekarang~42–0 jtyl[1][2] PreЄ Є O S D C P T J K Pg N Carcharhinus albimarginatus Klasifikasi ilmiah Domain: Eukaryota Kerajaan: Animalia Filum: Chordata Kelas: Chondrichthyes Superordo: Selachimorpha Ordo: Carcharhiniformes Famili: Carcharhinidae Genus: CarcharhinusBlainville 1816 Spesies tipe Carcharias melanopterusQuoy & Gaimard 1824 Spesies Lihat teks Sinonim Aprionodon Gill 1861 Eulamia Gill 1862 Galeolamna Owen 1853 Gillisqual…
Halaman ini berisi artikel tentang kehidupan Chelsea Manning. Untuk sidang pengadilan, lihat United States v. Manning. Chelsea ManningManning pada bulan Mei 2017LahirBradley Edward Manning17 Desember 1987 (umur 36)Crescent, Oklahoma, Amerika SerikatKebangsaanAmerika SerikatDikenal atasMembocorkan dokumen rahasia untuk WikileaksGugatan kejahatanSpionase, pencurian benda milik pemerintah, pelanggaran terhadap UU Penipuan dan Penyalahgunaan Komputer, mengabaikan perintah[1]Hukuman krim…
Disambiguazione – Se stai cercando altri significati, vedi Campania (disambigua). Campaniaregione a statuto ordinario(IT) Regione Campania (dettagli) (dettagli) Campania – VedutaLa Campania dal satellite LocalizzazioneStato Italia AmministrazioneCapoluogoNapoli PresidenteVincenzo De Luca (PD) dal 18-6-2015 (2º mandato dal 26-10-2020) Data di istituzione1948[1] TerritorioCoordinatedel capoluogo40°49′34″N 14°15′23″E / 40.826111°N 14.…
Lorenzo Pellegrini Informasi pribadiTanggal lahir 19 Juni 1996 (umur 27)Tempat lahir Roma, ItaliaTinggi 186 m (610 ft 3 in)Posisi bermain GelandangInformasi klubKlub saat ini AS RomaNomor 7Karier junior2007–2015 AS RomaKarier senior*Tahun Tim Tampil (Gol)2014–2015 AS Roma 1 (0)2015–2017 Sassuolo 47 (9)2017– AS Roma 55 (6)Tim nasional‡2014–2015 Italia U-19 15 (1)2015 Italia U-20 2 (0)2016–2019 Italia U-21 14 (5)2017– Italia 12 (1) * Penampilan dan gol di klub s…
Sebuah dabba, atau rantang khas India Rantang atau panci susun (dabbas : India) adalah sejenis kotak bekal yang digunakan secara luas di Asia dan Karibia untuk makan berat. Dari India mereka menyebar ke Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapura, Guyana, Suriname dan Trinidad dan Tobago,[1][2] di mana mereka sekarang banyak digunakan. Mereka juga digunakan secara luas di Hungaria, terutama untuk mengangkut makanan restoran untuk dikonsumsi di rumah. Versi Hungaria biasanya berisi sup, h…
Do It Like a DudeSingel oleh Jessie Jdari album Who You AreDirilis18 November 2010 (2010-11-18)FormatCD single, unduhan musik,GenrePop, pop rock, R&BDurasi3:15LabelLava Records, Island RecordsPenciptaGeorge Astasio, Jason Pebworth, Jessica Cornish, Jon Shave, Kyle Abrahams, Peter IghileProduserThe Invisible Men, Parker & James, mixed by James F Reynolds Do It Like a Dude adalah singel pertama dari penyanyi R&B asal Britania Raya, Jessie J, yang dirilis pada tanggal 18 November 2…
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Delta seri 1000 (juga disebut sebagai Straight-Eight) adalah sistem peluncuran expendable (sekali pakai) Amerika yang digunakan untuk melakukan peluncuran delapan orbital antara tahun 1972 dan 1975. Itu adalah anggota keluarga roket Delta. Beberapa varian ada, dibedakan oleh empat kode numerik digit. Referensi Wade, Mark. Delta. Encyclopedia Astronautica. Diakses tanggal 2009-02-15. Krebs, Gunter. Thor family. Gunter's Space Page. Diakses tanggal 2009-02-15. Artikel bertopik astronom…
Kelelawar merupakan hewan nokturnal. Hewan giat malam atau hewan nokturnal adalah hewan yang tidur pada siang hari, dan aktif pada malam hari. Aktivitas yang merupakan kebalikan dari perilaku manusia (diurnal). Hewan nokturnal umumnya memiliki kemampuan pendengaran dan penciuman serta penglihatan yang tajam. Di kebun binatang, hewan nokturnal ditempatkan pada kandang khusus kedap cahaya untuk mengalihkan siklus tidur mereka agar tetap aktif selama waktu berkunjung. Hewan nokturnal biasanya menge…
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