Aqidah

Aqidah (Arabic: عَقِيدَة, romanized: ʿaqīdah, IPA: [ʕɑˈqiːdæ], pl. عَقَائِد, ʿaqāʾid, [ʕɑˈqɑːʔɪd]) is an Islamic term of Arabic origin that literally means "creed".^[1] It is also called Islamic creed or Islamic theology.^[2]^[3]

Aqidah goes beyond concise statements of faith and may not be part of an ordinary Muslim's religious instruction.^[4] It has been distinguished from iman in "taking the aspects of Iman and extending it to a detail level" often using "human interpretation or sources".^[5] Also, in contrast with iman, the word aqidah is not explicitly mentioned in the Quran.

Many schools of Islamic theology expressing different aqidah exist. However, this term has taken a significant technical usage in the Islamic theology, and is a branch of Islamic studies describing the beliefs of Islam.

Etymology

Aqidah comes from the Semitic root ʿ-q-d, which means "to tie; knot".^[6] ("Aqidah" used not only as an expression of a school of Islamic theology or belief system, but as another word for "theology" in Islam, as in: "Theology (Aqidah) covers all beliefs and belief systems of Muslims, including sectarian differences and points of contention".)^[7]

Introduction

According to Muslim scholar Cyril Glasse, "systematic statements of belief became necessary, from early [on in the history of] Islam, initially to refute heresies, and later to distinguish points of view and to present them, as the divergences of schools of theology or opinion increased."^[8]

The "first" creed written as "a short answer to the pressing heresies of the time" is known as Fiqh Akbar and ascribed to Abu Hanifa.^[8]^[9] Two creeds were the Fiqh Akbar II^{[citation needed]} "representative" of the Ash'ari, and Fiqh Akbar III, "representative" of the Shafi'i.^[8] Al-Ghazali also had an aqidah.^[8] These creeds were more detailed than those described below.

According to Malcolm Clark, while Islam "is not a creedal religion", it has produced some detailed creeds, "some containing 100 or more belief statements" that summarized "the theological position of a particular scholar or school."^[10]

Six articles of belief

The six articles of faith or belief (Arkan al-Iman) derived from the Quran and Sunnah,^[11] are accepted by all Muslims. While there are differences between Shia and Sunni Islam and other different schools or sects concerning issues such as the attributes of God or about the purpose of angels, the six articles are not disputed.

The six Sunni articles of belief are:

Belief in God and tawhid
Belief in the angels
Belief in the Islamic holy books^[12]
Belief in the prophets and messengers
Belief in the Last Judgment and Resurrection
Belief in predestination

The first five are based on several Qurʾanic beliefs:

...righteous is he who believeth in God and the Last Day and the angels and the scripture and the prophets (2:177)

...believer believe in God and His angels and His scriptures and His messengers (2:285)

Whoever disbelieveth in God and His angels and His scriptures and His messengers and the Last Day, he verily wandered far stray (4:136)

Who is an enemy of God, His Angels, His Messengers, Gabriel and Michael! Then, lo! God is an enemy to the disbelievers (2:98)

The sixth point made it into the creed because of the first theological controversy in Islam. Although not connected with the Sunni-Shiʿi controversy about the succession, the majority of Twelver Shiʿites do not stress God's limitless power (qadar), but rather His boundless justice (ʿadl) as the sixth point of belief – this does not mean that Sunnis deny His justice, or Shiʿites negate His power, just that the emphasis is different.^{[citation needed]}

In Sunni and Shia view, having Iman literally means having belief in the six articles. ^{[citation needed]}

Tawhid

Tawhid ("doctrine of Oneness") is the religion's most fundamental concept and holds that Allah (the Arabic word for God) is one (aḥad), unique (wāḥid), and the only being worthy of worship. The Quran teaches the existence of a single and absolute truth that transcends the world—a unique, independent and indivisible being who is independent of the entire creation.^[13] God, according to Islam, is a universal God, rather than a local, tribal, or parochial one, and is an absolute who integrates all affirmative values.^[14]^[15]

Iman

Iman, in Islamic theology denotes a believer's faith in the metaphysical aspects of Islam.^[16]^[17] Its most simple definition is the belief in the six articles of faith, known as arkān al-īmān.

Hadith of Gabriel

The Hadith of Gabriel includes the Five Pillars of Islam (Tawhid, Salat, Sawm, Zakat, Hajj) in answer to the question, "O messenger of God, what is Islam?" This hadith is sometimes called the "truly first and most fundamental creed."^[8]

Salat

Salat is an act of worship. Salat means to call to the Lord Who created and gives life to the worshipper in Islam. This call realizes one to surrender caller's will, obeying his God. It is one of the Five Pillars of Islam. Islam gives concession conditionally if it is difficult to pray Salat in formal ways. People who find it physically difficult can perform Salat in a way suitable to them. To perform valid Salat, Muslims must be in a state of ritual purity, which is mainly achieved by ritual wash ups, (wuḍūʾ), as per prescribed procedures. Salat consists of "standing" (Qiyam) intending to call God, bow at knees (Ruku) meaning to ready to obey, prostrate (Sajda) willing to surrender worshipper's will to God's, then to sit (Tashhud) asserting evidence of the oneness of God and the finality of God's apostle (Nabi).

Sawm

In the terminology of Islamic law, sawm means to abstain from eating, drinking (including water) and sexual intercourse from dawn until dusk. The observance of sawm during the holy month of Ramadan is one of the Five Pillars of Islam, but is not confined to that month.

Zakat

Zakat is the practice of charitable giving by Muslims based on accumulated wealth and is obligatory for all who are able to do so. It is considered to be a personal responsibility for Muslims to ease economic hardship for others and eliminate inequality.

Hajj

A 16th century illustration of Islam's holiest shrine, the Ka'aba.

The Hajj is an Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca and the largest gathering of Muslims in the world every year. It is one of the five pillars of Islam, and a religious duty which must be carried out by every able-bodied Muslim who can afford to do so at least once in his or her lifetime.

Other tenets

In addition, some Muslims include Jihad and Dawah as part of aqidah.

Jihad

Jihad (to struggle) and literally means to endeavor, strive, labor to apply oneself, to concentrate, to work hard, to accomplish. It could be used to refer to those who physically, mentally or economically serve in the way of God.^[18] In the religious context, it is the struggle against disbelief and injustice using any means possible to establish, propagate and defend the faith and its principles on individualistic and societal levels.

Dawah

Da‘wah ("invitation") means the proselytizing or preaching of Islam. Da‘wah literally means "issuing a summon" or "making an invitation", being an active participle of a verb meaning variously "to summon" or "to invite." A Muslim who practices da‘wah, either as a religious worker or in a volunteer community effort, is called a dā‘ī (داعي plural du‘āh, gen: du‘āt دعاة).

A dā‘ī is thus a person who invites people to understand Islam through dialogue, not unlike the Islamic equivalent of a missionary inviting people to the faith, prayer and manner of Islamic life.

Eschatology

Eschatology is literally understood as the last things or ultimate things and in Muslim theology, eschatology refers to the end of this world and what will happen in the next world or hereafter. Eschatology covers the death of human beings, their souls after their bodily death, the total destruction of this world, the resurrection of humans, the Last Judgment of human deeds by God after the resurrection, and the rewards and punishments for the believers and non-believers respectively. The places for the believers in the hereafter are known as Paradise and for the non-believers as Hell.

Schools of theology

Sunni Muslim theology is the theology and interpretation of creed (aqidah) that derived from the Qur'an and Hadith. The contents of Muslim theology can be divided into theology proper such as theodicy, eschatology, anthropology, apophatic theology, and comparative religion. In the history of Sunni Muslim theology, there have been theological schools among Muslims displaying both similarities and differences with each other in regard to beliefs. ^[19]

Traditional schools

Kalam

Kalām is an "Islamic scholastic theology" of seeking theological principles through dialectic. In Arabic, the word literally means "speech/words." A scholar of kalām is referred to as a mutakallim (Muslim theologian; plural mutakallimūn). There are many schools of Kalam, the main ones being the Ash'ari and Maturidi schools in Sunni Islam, and the Mu'tazilis (who are not Sunni).^[20]^[21] Traditionalist theology rejects the use of kalam, regarding humans reason as sinful in unseen matters.^[22]

Mu'tazilis

Muʿtazilite is an Unorthodox school. In terms of the relationship between human beings and their creator, the Muʿtazila emphasize human free will over predestination. They also reduced the divine attributes to the divine essence. The Mu’tazilites are considered heretics by all the traditional Sunni Islamic schools of theology.^[23]

Ash'aris

The eponymous founder of this school is Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari, one of the first to study under but then quit the Mu'tazilis. This group is considered the most “traditional” of Sunni theology and the most followed by Sunni Muslims today.^[24]^[25] It was the historic foe of the Mu'tazili school, the “rationalists” in terms of speculative theology.^[26]

Ash'arism accepts reason in regard of exegetical matters and traditionalistic ideas.^[27] What God does or commands — as revealed in the Quran and ahadith — is by definition just. What He prohibits is by definition unjust. Right and wrong are objective realities.^[28] The Quran is the uncreated word of God in essence, however it is created then it takes on a form in letters or sound.^[29]

Maturidis

Maturidism is a Sunni theological school founded by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi, holding many positions in common with the Ash'aris but differing from them on others.^[30]^[31]^[32]^[33] Much like the Ash'arite approach to Qur'anic verses that could yield an anthropomorphic concept of God, they affirmed His transcendence while understanding these expressions by the conventional figurative meanings they had garnered in Arabic.

Maturidism holds, that humans are creatures endowed with reason, that differentiates them from animals. Further, The relationship between people and God differs from that of nature and God; humans are endowed with free will, but due to God's sovereignty, God creates the acts the humans choose, so humans can perform them. Ethics can be understood just by reason and do not need prophetic guidances. Maturidi also considered hadiths as unreliable, when they are in odd with reason.^[34] However, the human mind alone could not grasp the entire truth, thus it is in need of revelation in regard of mysterious affairs. Further, Maturidism opposes anthropomorphism and similtute, while simultaneously does not deny the divine attributes. They must be either interpreted in the light of Tawhid or be left out.^[35]

Athari theology

For the Athari theology, the literal meaning of the Qur'an and especially the prophetic traditions have sole authority in matters of belief, as well as law, and to engage in rational disputation, even if one arrives at the truth, is absolutely forbidden.^[36] Atharis engage in an amodal reading of the Qur'an, as opposed to one engaged in Ta'wil (metaphorical interpretation). They do not attempt to rationally conceptualize the meanings of the Qur'an and believe that the real meanings should be consigned to God alone (tafwid).^[37] This theology was taken from exegesis of the Qur'an and statements of the early Muslims and later codified by a number of scholars including Ahmad ibn Hanbal and Ibn Qudamah. There are different views whether Ath’ari creed should or should not be included as a Sunni school of aqidah.^[38]^[39]

Shia beliefs and practices

Shiʿi Muslims are different they hold that there are five articles of belief. Similar to the Sunnis, the Shiʿis do not believe in complete predestination, or complete free will. They believe that in human life there is both free will and predestination.

Twelver's Roots of Shia Religion (Uṣūl ad-Dīn)

Tawhid: The Oneness of God.
Adalah: The Justice of God.
Nubuwwah (Prophethood): God has appointed perfect and infallible prophets and messengers to teach mankind the religion (i.e. a perfect system on how to live in "peace.")
Imamate: (Leadership): God has appointed specific leaders to lead and guide mankind — a prophet appoints a custodian of the religion before his demise.
Last Judgment: God will raise mankind for Judgment

Ismaili Shia beliefs

The branch of Islam known as Isma'ilism is the second largest Shiʿi community. They observe the following extra pillars:

Literature pertaining to creed

Many Muslim scholars have written Islamic creeds, or specific aspects of a aqidah. The following list contains some of the most well-known creeds.

Sunni literature

Mukhtasar Shu'ab al-Imān or "The 77 branches of faith" by the Imām al-Bayhaqi
Al-Fiqh Al-Akbar by Imām Abu Hanifa
al-ʿAqīdah aṭ-Ṭaḥāwiyya ("The Fundamentals of Islamic Creed by al-Tahawi). This has been accepted by almost all Sunnis (Atharis, Ash'aris and Maturidis). Several Islamic scholars have written about the Tahawiyya creed, including Ali al-Qari, al-Maydani, ibn Abi al-Izz and Abd al-Aziz ibn Baz.
As- Sunnah by Imām Ahmad ibn Hanbal
Al- Iman by al-Adni
As-Sunnah by Imām Abu Dawood
Sarihus Sunnah by Imām Al-Tabari
As-Sunnah by Imām Al-Tabarani
Aqīdah Salafi Ahl al-Hadith by al-Sabuni
I'tīqad Ahl Al-Sunnah wal Jām'ah by Imām Lalqai Hibatullah
As- Sunnah by Nasr al- Marwazi
Ash-Shariah by al-Ajurri
Al-Iman by Ibn Mandah
Ad- Durrātu fīma yazibu i'tiqaduhu by Imām Ibn Hazm
Kitāb at- Tāwhid by Imām Ibn Rajab
Al- 'Aqīdah al-Nasafiyya by Imām Najm al-Din 'Umar al-Nasafi
Ar-rīsālah al-kairoāniyah by Abi Zaid al-Kairoa
Al-I'tīqad by Al-Bayhaqi
Al-ʿAqīdah al-Wāsiṭiyyah ("The Wasit Creed") by ibn Taymiyyah.
Sharh as Sunnah or the Explanation of the Sunna by al-Hasan ibn 'Ali al-Barbahari. Lists approximately 170 points pertaining to the fundamentals of aqidah.
Khalq Afʿāl al-ʿIbād ("The Creation of the Acts of Servants") by Muhammad al-Bukhari. It shows the opinion of early scholars (Salaf) but it does not cover all topics.
Lum'at al-Itiqād by ibn Qudamah. Details the creed of the early Imams of the Sunni Muslims and one of the key works in the Athari creed.
al-ʿUluww by al-Dhahabī. Details the opinions of early scholars on matters of creed.
Ibaanah ān ūsulid diyanah by Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari.
Risālah al-Qudsiyyah ("The Jerusalem Tract") by al-Ghazali, where the rules of faith are discussed.
Sa'd al-Din al-Taftazani on the creed of Abu Hafs Umar an-Nasafi

Shia literature

Shiʿite Islam Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i: translated by Hossein Nasr; (also reprinted under the title Shi'a.)"
Root and Branches of Faith by Maqbul Hussein Rahim
Shi'ism Doctrines, Thought and Spirituality by Hossein Nasr

Gallery

Bosniak "Book of the Science of Conduct" lists 54 religious duties that each Muslim must know about, believe in, and fulfill. Published in 1831, the handbook is by the Bosnian author and poet Abdulwahāb Žepčewī.
"Book of Wisdom" based on Islamic Theology by Khoja Akhmet Yassawi (died 1166)
“Safeguards of Transmission” by Ubayd Allāh ibn Masūd ibn Mahmud ibn Ahmad al-Mahbūbī (died 1346).

References

^ Abdel-Haleem, M. A. S. (2008). "Part I: Historical perspectives - Qur'an and hadith". In Winter, Timothy (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 19–32. doi:10.1017/CCOL9780521780582.002. ISBN 9781139001816.
^ Buang, Sa’eda; Chew, Phyllis Ghim-Lian (9 May 2014). Muslim Education in the 21st Century: Asian perspectives. Routledge. p. 97. ISBN 978-1-317-81500-6. Retrieved 9 August 2022.
^ Abbas, Tahir (22 January 2007). Islamic Political Radicalism: A European Perspective. Edinburgh University Press. p. 257. ISBN 978-0-7486-3086-8. Retrieved 9 August 2022.
^ Guillaume, Alfred (1978) [1954]. Islam. Penguin. p. 134.
^ FAROOQ, MOHAMMAD OMAR (6 February 2020). "Let's Be Content With Iman, Not Aqeedah". Islamicity. Retrieved 26 June 2022.
^ and hence the class VIII verb iʿtaqada "to firmly believe", verbal noun iʿtiqād "belief, faith, trust, confidence, conviction; creed, doctrine", participle muʿtaqad "creed, doctrine, dogma, conviction, belief, opinion". (Source: Wehr, Hans, “عقد” in: J. Milton Cowan (ed.), A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic, 4th edition (1979)).
^ "Theology (Aqidah)". Madina Institute. Archived from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 12 August 2021.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Glasse, Cyril (2001). New Encyclopedia of Islam (Revised ed.). Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 105.
^ Abu Hanifah An-Nu^man. "Al- Fiqh Al-Akbar" (PDF). aicp.org. Retrieved 14 March 2014.
^ Clark, Malcolm (2003). "4. What Muslims believe. Rejecting formal creeds". Islam for Dunnies. Wiley.
^ Joel Beversluis, ed. (2011). Sourcebook of the World's Religions: An Interfaith Guide to Religion and Spirituality. New World Library. pp. 68–9. ISBN 9781577313328.
^ "The Quran". The Quran. contributors Iman Mohammad Kashi, Uwe Hideki Matzen, and Online Quran Project.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
^ Vincent J. Cornell, Encyclopedia of Religion, Vol 5, pp. 3561-3562.
^ Asma Barlas (2002), p. 97.
^ Wahhab, Abd Al. "Chapter 4, Fear of Shirk". Kitab Al Tawheed. Darussalam.
^ Farāhī, Majmū‘ah Tafāsīr, 2nd ed. (Faran Foundation, 1998), 347.
^ Frederick M. Denny, An Introduction to Islam, 3rd ed., p. 405
^ Khalid Mahmood Shaikh
^ Islamic Studies Resources, BAHISEEN [Islamic Studies]. "Primary Resources". Archived from the original on 2021-02-26.
^ Frank, Daniel H.; Leaman, Oliver; H, Frank Daniel (2003-09-11). The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Jewish Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. p. 72. ISBN 978-0-521-65574-3. Retrieved 10 August 2022.
^ Jeffry R. Halverson (2010). Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam: The Muslim Brotherhood, Ash'arism, and Political Sunnism. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 20. ISBN 9780230106581.
^ Hadi Enayat Islam and Secularism in Post-Colonial Thought: A Cartography of Asadian Genealogies Springer, 30.06.2017 ISBN 9783319526119 p.48
^ Nader El-Bizri, ‘God: essence and attributes’, in The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic theology, ed. Tim Winter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), pp. 121-140
^ A. C. Grayling (2019). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. p. 390. ISBN 9780241980866. The Ash'ari school became, and is still, the most important of the Sunni theological schools (it is sometimes described as the 'Sunni orthodoxy').
^ Jeffrey T. Kenney; Ebrahim Moosa, eds. (2013). Islam in the Modern World. Routledge. p. 103. ISBN 9781135007959.
^ Hamid Dabashi (2012). Shi'ism: A Religion of Protest. Harvard University Press. p. 338. ISBN 9780674262911.
^ Ed. Esposito The Oxford History of Islam Oxford University Press 1999 ISBN 9780195107999 p. 280
^ Brown, Jonathan A.C. (2014) Misquoting Muhammad: The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy. Oneworld Publications ISBN 978-1780744209 p. 53
^ Cyril Glassé, Huston Smith The New Encyclopedia of Islam Rowman Altamira 2003 ISBN 978-0-759-10190-6 page 62-3
^ Abul Hasan Ali Nadwi (1971). Mohiuddin Ahmad (ed.). Saviours of Islamic Spirit, Volume 1. Translated by Mohiuddin Ahmad. Lucknow, India: Academy of Islamic Research and Publications. p. 98. The differences between the Ash'arites and the Maturidites were simply marginal and limited to 30 to 40 issues of comparatively lesser importance.
^ H.R.H. Prince Ghazi bin Muhammad (2018). Foreword by H.M. King Abdullah II ibn al-Hussein (ed.). A Thinking Person's Guide to Islam: The Essence of Islam in 12 Verses from the Qur'an. Turath Publishing. p. 171. ISBN 9781906949648. Most Sunnis of the four madhahib follow the Ash'ari and Maturidi schools of doctrine and theology. Indeed, Ash'ari and Maturidi doctrines basically only differ on a few issues, most of which are arguably linguistic quibbles, so that these two schools of theology are essentially one tradition.
^ Fitzroy Morrissey (2021). A Short History of Islamic Thought. Oxford University Press. p. 68. ISBN 9780197522011. There, in a city noted for its religious diversity, he continued the old tradition of kalam as reasoned polemic: his writings contain refutations of Jews, Christians, and the dualist Manichaeans and Zoroastrians, as well as the Mu'tazila, the Shi'a, and other misguided Islamic sects. Against these various opponents, al-Maturidi argued for doctrines that were essentially close to those of al-Ash'ari.
^ "هل أهل السنة في الأردن هم الأشاعرة؟". aliftaa.jo (in Arabic). The General Iftaa' Department of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. Archived from the original on 4 Jul 2015. الأشاعرة هم جمهور أهل السنة والجماعة من المالكية والشافعية، وأما الحنفية فهم ماتريدية يتبعون أبا منصور الماتريدي (333هـ)، والخلاف بينهم وبين الأشاعرة محدود
^ Rico Isaacs, Alessandro Frigerio Theorizing Central Asian Politics: The State, Ideology and Power Springer, 2018 ISBN 9783319973555 p. 108
^ Mohammad Sharif Khan, Mohammad Anwar Saleem Muslim Philosophy and Philosophers PH Publishing, 1994 ISBN 9788170246237 p. 30
^ Jeffry R. Halverson, Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam. ISBN 0230106587, p 36.
^ Jeffry R. Halverson, Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam. ISBN 0230106587, p 36-37.
^ Ahmad, Ustadha Shazia (29 March 2022). "Which School of Thought Should I Follow in 'Aqida?". Seekers Guidance. Retrieved 26 June 2022.
^ Abrahamov, Binyamin (2016) [2014]. "Part I: Islamic Theologies during the Formative and the Early Middle period – Scripturalist and Traditionalist Theology". In Schmidtke, Sabine (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 263–279. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199696703.013.025. ISBN 9780199696703. LCCN 2016935488.

[1] Abdel-Haleem, M. A. S. (2008). "Part I: Historical perspectives - Qur'an and hadith". In Winter, Timothy (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 19–32. doi:10.1017/CCOL9780521780582.002. ISBN 9781139001816.

[2] Buang, Sa’eda; Chew, Phyllis Ghim-Lian (9 May 2014). Muslim Education in the 21st Century: Asian perspectives. Routledge. p. 97. ISBN 978-1-317-81500-6. Retrieved 9 August 2022.

[3] Abbas, Tahir (22 January 2007). Islamic Political Radicalism: A European Perspective. Edinburgh University Press. p. 257. ISBN 978-0-7486-3086-8. Retrieved 9 August 2022.

[4] Guillaume, Alfred (1978) [1954]. Islam. Penguin. p. 134.

[FAROOQ-content-2020-5] FAROOQ, MOHAMMAD OMAR (6 February 2020). "Let's Be Content With Iman, Not Aqeedah". Islamicity. Retrieved 26 June 2022.

[6] the class VIII verb iʿtaqada "to firmly believe", verbal noun iʿtiqād "belief, faith, trust, confidence, conviction; creed, doctrine", participle muʿtaqad "creed, doctrine, dogma, conviction, belief, opinion". (Source: Wehr, Hans, “عقد” in: J. Milton Cowan (ed.), A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic, 4th edition (1979)).

[Madina_Institute-7] "Theology (Aqidah)". Madina Institute. Archived from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 12 August 2021.

[Glasse-8] Glasse, Cyril (2001). New Encyclopedia of Islam (Revised ed.). Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 105.

[9] Abu Hanifah An-Nu^man. "Al- Fiqh Al-Akbar" (PDF). aicp.org. Retrieved 14 March 2014.

[Clark-believe-10] Clark, Malcolm (2003). "4. What Muslims believe. Rejecting formal creeds". Islam for Dunnies. Wiley.

[Interfaith-11] Joel Beversluis, ed. (2011). Sourcebook of the World's Religions: An Interfaith Guide to Religion and Spirituality. New World Library. pp. 68–9. ISBN 9781577313328.

[12] "The Quran". The Quran. contributors Iman Mohammad Kashi, Uwe Hideki Matzen, and Online Quran Project.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: others (link)

[EncRel-13] Vincent J. Cornell, Encyclopedia of Religion, Vol 5, pp. 3561-3562.

[Barlas96-14] Asma Barlas (2002), p. 97.

[15] Wahhab, Abd Al. "Chapter 4, Fear of Shirk". Kitab Al Tawheed. Darussalam.

[16] Farāhī, Majmū‘ah Tafāsīr, 2nd ed. (Faran Foundation, 1998), 347.

[17] Frederick M. Denny, An Introduction to Islam, 3rd ed., p. 405

[18] Khalid Mahmood Shaikh

[19] Islamic Studies Resources, BAHISEEN [Islamic Studies]. "Primary Resources". Archived from the original on 2021-02-26.

[20] Frank, Daniel H.; Leaman, Oliver; H, Frank Daniel (2003-09-11). The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Jewish Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. p. 72. ISBN 978-0-521-65574-3. Retrieved 10 August 2022.

[21] Jeffry R. Halverson (2010). Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam: The Muslim Brotherhood, Ash'arism, and Political Sunnism. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 20. ISBN 9780230106581.

[22] Hadi Enayat Islam and Secularism in Post-Colonial Thought: A Cartography of Asadian Genealogies Springer, 30.06.2017 ISBN 9783319526119 p.48

[23] Nader El-Bizri, ‘God: essence and attributes’, in The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic theology, ed. Tim Winter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), pp. 121-140

[24] A. C. Grayling (2019). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. p. 390. ISBN 9780241980866. The Ash'ari school became, and is still, the most important of the Sunni theological schools (it is sometimes described as the 'Sunni orthodoxy').

[25] Jeffrey T. Kenney; Ebrahim Moosa, eds. (2013). Islam in the Modern World. Routledge. p. 103. ISBN 9781135007959.

[26] Hamid Dabashi (2012). Shi'ism: A Religion of Protest. Harvard University Press. p. 338. ISBN 9780674262911.

[27] Ed. Esposito The Oxford History of Islam Oxford University Press 1999 ISBN 9780195107999 p. 280

[28] Brown, Jonathan A.C. (2014) Misquoting Muhammad: The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy. Oneworld Publications ISBN 978-1780744209 p. 53

[glasse-62-3-29] Cyril Glassé, Huston Smith The New Encyclopedia of Islam Rowman Altamira 2003 ISBN 978-0-759-10190-6 page 62-3

[30] Abul Hasan Ali Nadwi (1971). Mohiuddin Ahmad (ed.). Saviours of Islamic Spirit, Volume 1. Translated by Mohiuddin Ahmad. Lucknow, India: Academy of Islamic Research and Publications. p. 98. The differences between the Ash'arites and the Maturidites were simply marginal and limited to 30 to 40 issues of comparatively lesser importance.

[31] H.R.H. Prince Ghazi bin Muhammad (2018). Foreword by H.M. King Abdullah II ibn al-Hussein (ed.). A Thinking Person's Guide to Islam: The Essence of Islam in 12 Verses from the Qur'an. Turath Publishing. p. 171. ISBN 9781906949648. Most Sunnis of the four madhahib follow the Ash'ari and Maturidi schools of doctrine and theology. Indeed, Ash'ari and Maturidi doctrines basically only differ on a few issues, most of which are arguably linguistic quibbles, so that these two schools of theology are essentially one tradition.

[32] Fitzroy Morrissey (2021). A Short History of Islamic Thought. Oxford University Press. p. 68. ISBN 9780197522011. There, in a city noted for its religious diversity, he continued the old tradition of kalam as reasoned polemic: his writings contain refutations of Jews, Christians, and the dualist Manichaeans and Zoroastrians, as well as the Mu'tazila, the Shi'a, and other misguided Islamic sects. Against these various opponents, al-Maturidi argued for doctrines that were essentially close to those of al-Ash'ari.

[33] "هل أهل السنة في الأردن هم الأشاعرة؟". aliftaa.jo (in Arabic). The General Iftaa' Department of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. Archived from the original on 4 Jul 2015. الأشاعرة هم جمهور أهل السنة والجماعة من المالكية والشافعية، وأما الحنفية فهم ماتريدية يتبعون أبا منصور الماتريدي (333هـ)، والخلاف بينهم وبين الأشاعرة محدود

[34] Rico Isaacs, Alessandro Frigerio Theorizing Central Asian Politics: The State, Ideology and Power Springer, 2018 ISBN 9783319973555 p. 108

[35] Mohammad Sharif Khan, Mohammad Anwar Saleem Muslim Philosophy and Philosophers PH Publishing, 1994 ISBN 9788170246237 p. 30

[36] Jeffry R. Halverson, Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam. ISBN 0230106587, p 36.

[37] Jeffry R. Halverson, Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam. ISBN 0230106587, p 36-37.

[Ahmad-Which-38] Ahmad, Ustadha Shazia (29 March 2022). "Which School of Thought Should I Follow in 'Aqida?". Seekers Guidance. Retrieved 26 June 2022.

[Abrahamov_2016-39] Abrahamov, Binyamin (2016) [2014]. "Part I: Islamic Theologies during the Formative and the Early Middle period – Scripturalist and Traditionalist Theology". In Schmidtke, Sabine (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 263–279. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199696703.013.025. ISBN 9780199696703. LCCN 2016935488.

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