Khwarazm has been known also as Chorasmia, Khaurism,[3]Khwarezm, Khwarezmia, Khwarizm, Khwarazm, Khorezm,[4]Khoresm, Khorasam, Kharazm, Harezm, Horezm, and Chorezm.[5]
In Avestan the name is Xvairizem; in Old Persian 𐎢𐎺𐎠𐎼𐏀𐎷𐎡𐏁 u-v-a-r-z-mi-i-š or 𐎢𐎺𐎠𐎼𐏀𐎷𐎡𐎹 u-v-a-r-z-mi-i-y (/hUvārazmī-/); in ModernPersian: خوارزمXārazm; in Arabic: خَـوَارِزْمKhawārizm; in Old Chinese *qʰaljɯʔmriɡ (呼似密); in Modern ChineseHuālázǐmó (花剌子模 / Xiao'erjing: خُوَلاذِمُوْ); in Tajik: Хоразм, Xorazm, خوارَزم; in Kazakh: Хорезм (Xorezm), حورەزم; in Uzbek: Xorazm, Хоразм, خورەزم; in Turkmen: Horezm, Хорезм, خوْرِزم; in Azerbaijani: Xarəzm, Харәзм; in Turkish: Harezm; in Greek languageΧορασμία (Chorasmía) and Χορασίμα (Chorasíma) by Herodotus.
Etymology
The Arab geographer Yaqut al-Hamawi in his Muʿǧam al-Buldan wrote that the name was a Persian compound of khwar (خوار), and razm (رزم), referring to the abundance of cooked fish as a main diet of the peoples of this area.[6]
C.E. Bosworth, however, believed the Persian name to be made up of xor (خور 'the sun') and zam (زم 'earth, land'), designating 'the land from which the sun rises',[7] although a similar etymology is also given for Khurasan. Another view is that the Iranian compound stands for 'lowland' from kh(w)ar 'low' and zam 'land'.[5] Khwarazm is indeed the lowest region in Central Asia (except for the Caspian Sea to the far west), located on the delta of the Amu Darya on the southern shores of the Aral Sea. Various forms of khwar/khar/khor/hor are commonly used in the Persian Gulf to stand for tidal flats, marshland, or tidal bays (e.g., Khor Musa, Khor Abdallah, Hor al-Azim, Hor al-Himar, etc.)[citation needed]
The name also appears in Achaemenid inscriptions as Huvarazmish, which is declared to be part of the Persian Empire.
Some of the early scholars believed Khwarazm to be what ancient Avestic texts refer to as Airyanem Vaejah (Airyanəm Vaēǰah; later Middle PersianĒrān-wēz).[8] These sources claim that Old Urgench, which was the capital of ancient Khwarazm for many years, was actually Ourva, the eighth land of Ahura Mazda mentioned in the Pahlavi text of Vendidad.[9] However, Michael Witzel, a researcher in early Indo-European history, believes that Airyanem Vaejah was in what is now Afghanistan, the northern areas of which were a part of ancient Khwarazm and Greater Khorasan.[10] Others, however, disagree. University of Hawaii historian Elton L. Daniel believes Khwarazm to be the "most likely locale" corresponding to the original home of the Avestan people, and Dehkhoda calls Khwarazm "the cradle of the Aryan tribe" (مهد قوم آریا).[11]
History
Legendary
The Khwarezmian scholar Al-Biruni (973–1048)[12][13][14]
says that the land belonging to the mythical king Afrasiab was first colonised 980 years before Alexander the Great (thus c. 1292 BC, well before the Seleucid era) when the hero of the Iranian epic Siyavash came to Khwarazm; his son Kay Khusraw came to the throne 92 years later, in 1200 BC.[citation needed] Al-Biruni starts giving names only with the Afrighid line of Khwarazmshahs, having placed the ascension of Afrighids in 616 of the Seleucid era, i.e. in 305 AD.[citation needed]
Early people
Like Sogdia, Khwarazm was an expansion of the Bactria–Margiana culture during the Bronze Age, which later fused with Indo-Iranians during their migrations around 1000 BC. Early Iron Age states arose from this cultural exchange. List of successive cultures in Khwarazm region 3000–500 BC:[17]
During the final Saka phase, there were about 400 settlements in Khwarezm.[18] Ruled by the native Afrighid dynasty, it was at this point that Khwarezm entered the historical record with the Achaemenid expansion.[citation needed]
For most of its history, up until the Mongol conquest, the inhabitants of the area were from Iranian stock,[23][24] and they spoke an Eastern Iranian language called Khwarezmian. The famous scientist Al-Biruni, a Khwarezm native, in his Athar ul-Baqiyah,[25] specifically verifies the Iranian origins of Khwarezmians when he wrote (in Arabic):
أهل خوارزم [...] کانوا غصناً من دوحة الفرس
("The people of Khwarezm were a branch from the Persian tree.")
The area of Khwarezm was under Afrighid and then Samanid control until the 10th century before it was conquered by the Ghaznavids. The Iranian Khwarezmian language and culture felt the pressure of Turkic infiltration from northern Khwarezm southwards, leading to the disappearance of the original Iranian character[14] of the province and its complete Turkicization today. Khwarezmian speech probably lasted in upper Khwarezm, the region round Hazarasp, till the end of the 8th/14th century.[14]
The Khwarezmian language survived for several centuries after Islam until the Turkification of the region, and so must some at least of the culture and lore of ancient Khwarezm, for it is hard to see the commanding figure of Al-Biruni, a repository of so much knowledge, appearing in a cultural vacuum.[14]
The Achaemenid Empire took control of Chorasmia during the time of King Darius I (ruled 550–486 BC).[16][26] And the Persian poet Ferdowsi mentions Persian cities like Afrasiab and Chach in abundance in his epic Shahnama. The contact with the Achaemenid Empire had a great influence on the material culture of Chorasmia, starting a period of rich economic and cultural development.[16]
Artav (Artabanos), ruler of Khwarezm. Blundered Greek legend "ΙΥΙΥΕΩΙΕ ΜΕΛΥΙ ΕΙΛΥΙΛΥ". Nike crowning the bust of the ruler. Chorasmian tamgha. Circa 1st–2nd century AD.[31][32]
Chorasmia was involved in the conquests of Alexander the Great in Central Asia. When the king of Khwarezm offered friendship to Alexander in 328 BC, Alexander's Greek and Roman biographers imagined the nomad king of a desert waste, but 20th-century Russian archeologists revealed the region as a stable and centralized kingdom, a land of agriculture to the east of the Aral Sea, surrounded by the nomads of Central Asia, protected by its army of mailed horsemen, in the most powerful kingdom northwest of the Amu Darya (the Oxus River of antiquity). The king's emissary offered to lead Alexander's armies against his own enemies, west over the Caspian towards the Black Sea (e.g. Kingdom of Iberia and Colchis).
From the 1st century BC, Chorasmia developed original coins inspired from Greco-Bactrian, Parthian, and Indo-Scythian types. Artav (Artabanus), a Chorasmian ruler of the 1st–2nd century AD, whose coins were discovered in the capital city of Toprak-Kala, imitated the type of the Kushan Heraios and were found together with coins of the Kushan rulers Vima Kadphises and Kanishka.[36]
From the 2nd century AD, Chorasmia became part of the vast cultural sphere corresponding to the rise of the Kushan Empire in the east.[16]
Fortress of Kyzyl-Kala, partially restored (1st-4th century AD)
Sassanid period
Under Shapur I, the Sasanian Empire spread as far as Khwarezm.[37]Yaqut al-Hamawi verifies that Khwarezm was a regional capital of the Sassanid empire. When speaking of the pre-Islamic "khosrau of Khwarezm" (خسرو خوارزم), the Islamic "amir of Khwarezm" (امیر خوارزم), or even the Khwarezmid Empire, sources such as Al-Biruni and Ibn Khordadbeh and others clearly refer to Khwarezm as being part of the Iranian (Persian) empire.[38] During the reign of Khosrow II, extensive areas of Khwarezm were conquered.[39]
In 712, Khwarezm was conquered by the ArabCaliphate (Umayyads and Abbasids). It thus came vaguely under Muslim control, but it was not till the end of the 8th century and the beginning of the 9th century that an Afrighid Shah first converted to Islam appearing with the popular convert's name of ʿAbdullah ('slave of God'). In the course of the 10th century—when some geographers such as Istakhri in his Al-Masalik wa-l-mamalik mention Khwarezm as part of Khorasan and Transoxiania—the local Ma'munids, based in Gurganj on the left bank of the Amu Darya, grew in economic and political importance due to trade caravans. In 995, they violently overthrew the Afrighids and themselves assumed the traditional title of Khwarazm-Shah.[44]
Briefly, the area was under Samanid suzerainty, before it passed to Mahmud of Ghazni in 1017. From then on, Turko-Mongolian invasions and long rule by Turko-Mongol dynasties supplanted the Iranian character of the region[43] although the title of Khwarezm-Shah was maintained well up to the 13th century.[43]
The date of the founding of the Khwarazmian dynasty remains debatable. During a revolt in 1017, Khwarezmian rebels murdered Abu'l-Abbas Ma'mun and his wife, Hurra-ji, sister of the Ghaznavid sultan Mahmud.[45] In response, Mahmud invaded and occupied the region of Khwarezm, which included Nasa and the ribat of Farawa.[46] As a result, Khwarezm became a province of the Ghaznavid Empire from 1017 to 1034. In 1077, the governorship of the province, which since 1042/1043 belonged to the Seljuqs, fell into the hands of Anush Tigin Gharchai, a former Turkic slave of the Seljuq sultan. In 1141, the Seljuq Sultan Ahmed Sanjar was defeated by the Qara Khitai at the battle of Qatwan, and Anush Tigin's grandson Ala ad-Din Atsiz became a vassal to Yelü Dashi of the Qara Khitan.[47]
Sultan Ahmed Sanjar died in 1156. As the Seljuk state fell into chaos, the Khwarezm-Shahs expanded their territories southward. In 1194, the last Sultan of the Great Seljuq Empire, Toghrul III, was defeated and killed by the Khwarezm ruler Ala ad-Din Tekish, who conquered parts of Khorasan and western Iran. In 1200, Tekish died and was succeeded by his son, Ala ad-Din Muhammad, who initiated a conflict with the Ghurids and was defeated by them at Amu Darya (1204).[48] Following the sack of Khwarizm, Muhammad appealed for aid from his suzerain, the Qara Khitai who sent him an army.[49] With this reinforcement, Muhammad won a victory over the Ghorids at Hezarasp (1204) and forced them out of Khwarizm.[citation needed]
Khwarezm during the rule of Qunghrat dynasty (1360–1388)
In 1360 there arose in Ḵwarazm an independent minor dynasty of Qunghrat Turks, the Ṣūfīs, but Solaymān Ṣūfī was crushed by Timur in 1388.[30]
The Islamization of Khwarazm was reflected in the creation of literary, scientific and religious works and in the translation of Arabic works into the Turkic language. In the Suleymaniye Library in Istanbul, the Koran is kept with an interlinear translation into Turkic, written in Khwarazm and dated (January – February 1363).[citation needed]
The region of Khwarezm was split between the White Horde and Jagatai Khanate, and its rebuilt capital Gurganj (modern Kunya Urgench, "Old Gorganj" as opposed to the modern city of Urgench some distance away) again became one of the largest and most important trading centers in Central Asia. In the mid-14th century Khwarezm gained independence from the Golden Horde under the Sufid dynasty. However, Timur regarded Khwarezm as a rival to Samarkand, and over the course of five campaigns, destroyed Urganch in 1388.[citation needed]
Control of the region was disputed by the Timurids and the Golden Horde, but in 1511 it passed to a new, local Uzbek dynasty, the ʿArabshahids.[30]
This, together with a shift in the course of the Amu-Darya, caused the center of Khwarezm to shift to Khiva, which became in the 16th century the capital of the Khanate of Khiva, ruled over by the dynasty of the Arabshahids.[citation needed]
Khiva Khanate is the name of Khwarazm adopted in the Russian historical tradition during the period of its existence (1512–1920). The Khiva Khanate was one of the Uzbek khanates. The term "Khiva Khanate" was used for the state in Khwarazm that existed from the beginning of the 16th century until 1920. The term "Khiva Khanate" was not used by the locals, who used the name Khvarazm. In Russian sources the term Khiva Khanate began to be used from the 18th century.[50]
Khwarazm during the reign Uzbek dynasty of Qungrats
During the reign of the Uzbek Khan Said Muhammad Khan (1856–1864) in the 1850s, for the first time in the history of Khwarazm, a general population census of Khwarazm was carried out.[citation needed]
Khwarazm in 1873–1920
It was under Tsars Alexander II and Alexander III that serious efforts to annex the region started. One of the main pretexts for Russian military expeditions to Khiva was to free Russian slaves in the khanate and to prevent future slave capture and trade.[citation needed]
The Khanate of Khiva was gradually reduced in size from Russian expansion in Turkestan (including Khwarezm) and, in 1873, a peace treaty was signed that established Khiva as a quasi-independent Russian protectorate.[citation needed]
In 1912, the Khiva Khanate numbered up to 440 schools and up to 65 madrasahs with 22,500 students. More than half of the madrasahs were in the city of Khiva (38).[citation needed]
Khwarezm and her cities appear in Persian literature in abundance, in both prose and poetry. Dehkhoda for example defines the name Bukhara itself as "full of knowledge", referring to the fact that in antiquity, Bukhara was a scientific and scholarship powerhouse. Rumi verifies this when he praises the city as such.[citation needed]
Other examples illustrate the eminent status of Khwarezmid and Transoxianian cities in Persian literature in the past 1500 years:
عالم جانها بر او هست مقرر چنانک
The world of hearts is under his power in the same manner that دولت خوارزمشاه داد جهان را قرار
The Khwarazmshahs have brought peace to the world.
Yaqut al-Hamawi, who visited Khwarezm and its capital in 1219, wrote: "I have never seen a city more wealthy and beautiful than Gurganj". The city, however, was destroyed during several invasions, in particular when the Mongol army broke the dams of the Amu Darya, which flooded the city. He reports that for every Mongol soldier, four inhabitants of Gurganj were killed. Najmeddin Kubra, the great Sufi master, was among the casualties. The Mongol army that devastated Gurganj was estimated to have been near 80,000 soldiers. The verse below refers to an early previous calamity that fell upon the region:
آخر ای خاک خراسان داد یزدانت نجات
Oh land of Khorasan! God has saved you, از بلای غیرت خاک ره گرگانج و کات
from the disaster that befell the land of Gurganj and Kath.
^L. Massignon, "Al-Biruni et la valuer internationale de la science arabe" in Al-Biruni Commemoration Volume (Calcutta, 1951), pp. 217–219. excerpt: In a celebrated preface to the Book of Drugs, Biruni says: "It is through the Arabic language that the sciences have been transmitted by means of translations from all parts of the world. They have been enhanced by the translation into the Arabic language and have as a result insinuated themselves into men's hearts, and the beauty of this language has commingled with these sciences in our veins and arteries. And if it is true that in all nations one likes to adorn oneself by using the language to which one has remained loyal, having become accustomed to using it with friends and companions according to need, I must judge for myself that in my nativeChorasmian, science has as much as chance of becoming perpetuated as a camel has of facing Kaaba."
^Andrew Dalby, Dictionary of Languages: The definitive reference to more than 400 languages, Columbia University Press, 2004, pg 278
^MacKenzie, D. N. "Khwarazmian Language and Literature," in E. Yarshater ed. Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. III, Part 2, Cambridge 1983, pp. 1244–1249
^Encyclopædia Iranica, "CENTRAL ASIA: The Islamic period up to the mongols", C. Edmund Bosworth: "In early Islamic times Persians tended to identify all the lands to the northeast of Khorasan and lying beyond the Oxus with the region of Turan, which in the Shahnama of Ferdowsi is regarded as the land allotted to Fereydun's son Tur. The denizens of Turan were held to include the Turks, in the first four centuries of Islam essentially those nomadizing beyond the Jaxartes, and behind them the Chinese (see Kowalski; Minorsky, "Turan"). Turan thus became both an ethnic and a geographical term, but always containing ambiguities and contradictions, arising from the fact that all through Islamic times the lands immediately beyond the Oxus and along its lower reaches were the homes not of Turks but of Iranian peoples, such as the Sogdians and Khwarezmians."
^C.E. Bosworth, "The Appearance of the Arabs in Central Asia under the Umayyads and the establishment of Islam", in History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol. IV: The Age of Achievement: AD 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century, Part One: The Historical, Social and Economic Setting, edited by M. S. Asimov and C. E. Bosworth. Multiple History Series. Paris: UNESCO Publishing, 1998. excerpt from page 23: "Central Asia in the early seventh century, was ethnically, still largely an Iranian land whose people used various Middle Iranian languages.
^"An Artabazus ( Artabazos ), son of Pharnaces, commanded the Parthian and Chorasmian units in Xerxes' expedition of 480, and led the Persian army back to Asia after Mardonius' death at Plataea." Bowder, Diana (1982). Who was who in the Greek World, 776 BC-30 BC. Phaidon. p. 62. ISBN978-0-7148-2207-5.
^"The Parthians and Chorasmians had for their commander Artabazus son of Pharnaces, the Sogdians Azanes son of Artaeus, the Gandarians and Dadicae Artyphius son of Artabanus." in Herodotus VII 64-66
^"Apart from purely archaeological and artistic evidence , the date has been determined from coins of the Kushan kings Vima Kadphises and Kanishka, and of the Khwarazmian king Artav , that were found on the lower floors of some structures . Some economic documents found in the Palace were dated to between 188 and 252 of the Khwarazmian era, i.e., to within the third century AD It should be borne in mind that only an insignificant portion of the archive has survived." in Bulletin of the Asia Institute. Wayne State University Press. 1996. p. 183.
^ abcClifford Edmund Bosworth, The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual, Columbia University, 1996.
^C.E. Bosworth, "The Ghaznavids" in History of Civilization: Central Asia in History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Volume IV: The Age of Achievement : A.D. 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century : Part One : The Historical Social and Economic Setting/edited by M.S. Asimov and C.E. Bosworth. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1999, 485 pages. (Vol. IV, Pt. I). ISBN81-208-1595-5. Excerpt from page 101: "The ancient Iranian kingdom of Khwarazm had been ruled until 995 by the old established line of Afrighids of Kath, but control subsequently passed to the new line of Khwarazm Shahs, the Ma'munids of Gurganj"
^C.E. Bosworth, The Ghaznavids:994-1040, (Edinburgh University Press, 1963), 237.
Yuri Bregel. "The Sarts in the Khanate of Khiva", Journal of Asian History, Vol. 12, 1978, pp. 121–151
Robin Lane Fox. Alexander the Great, pp. 308ff etc.
Shir Muhammad Mirab Munis & Muhammad Reza Mirab Agahi. Firdaws al-Iqbal. History of Khorezm (Leiden: Brill) 1999, trans & ed. Yuri Bregel
Minardi, M. (2015). Ancient Chorasmia. A Polity between the Semi-Nomadic and Sedentary Cultural Areas of Central Asia. Cultural Interactions and Local Developments from the Sixth Century BC to the First Century AD. Peeters. ISBN978-90-429-3138-1.
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Joi ItoIto pada 2007Lahir19 Juni 1966 (umur 57)Kyoto, JepangKebangsaanJepangAlmamaterUniversitas TuftsUniversitas ChicagoThe New SchoolUniversitas KeioDikenal atasBlogging, Moblogging, Creative Commons, MIT Media Lab, Safecast, hubungan dengan Jeffrey EpsteinSitus webJoi.Ito.com Joichi Joi Ito (伊藤 穰一code: ja is deprecated , Itō Jōichi, lahir 19 Juni 1966) adalah seorang wirausahawan asal Jepang. Ia adalah mantan direktur MIT Media Lab, mantan profesor praktek seni dan ilmu media d…
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Kalium iodat Nama Nama IUPAC Kalium iodat Nama lain Garam kalium, asam iodat Penanda Nomor CAS 7758-05-6 Y Model 3D (JSmol) Gambar interaktif 3DMet {{{3DMet}}} ChemSpider 22856 Y Nomor EC PubChem CID 23665710 Nomor RTECS {{{value}}} UNII I139E44NHL Y CompTox Dashboard (EPA) DTXSID5058480 InChI InChI=1S/HIO3.K/c2-1(3)4;/h(H,2,3,4);/q;+1/p-1 YKey: JLKDVMWYMMLWTI-UHFFFAOYSA-M YInChI=1/HIO3.K/c2-1(3)4;/h(H,2,3,4);/q;+1/p-1Key: JLKDVMWYMMLWTI-REWHXWOFAL SMILES [K+].…
Las Tunas Province Province Negara Kuba Capital Victoria de Las Tunas Area 6.587,75 km2 (2.544 sq mi) Population 529.850 (2004) Density 80,4 / km² (208 / sq mi) Zona waktu EST (UTC-5) Area code +53-31 Location of Las Tunas Province in Cuba Provinsi Las Tunas adalah sebuah provinsi di timur negara Kuba. Ibu kotanya adalah Victoria de Las Tunas. Kota lainnya adalah Puerto Padre dan Amancio. Provinsi ini memiliki penduduk sebesar 529.850 jiwa. Pranala luar (Inggr…
جامع خالد بن الوليد جامع خالد بن الوليد. إحداثيات 34°44′12″N 36°42′56″E / 34.736780555556°N 36.715588888889°E / 34.736780555556; 36.715588888889 معلومات عامة القرية أو المدينة حمص ، سوريا الدولة سوريا سنة التأسيس 1908 تاريخ بدء البناء القرن السابع الهجري المواصفات عدد القباب 9 التصميم و…
العلاقات الإسواتينية السنغافورية إسواتيني سنغافورة إسواتيني سنغافورة تعديل مصدري - تعديل العلاقات الإسواتينية السنغافورية هي العلاقات الثنائية التي تجمع بين إسواتيني وسنغافورة.[1][2][3][4][5] مقارنة بين البلدين هذه مقارنة عامة ومرجعية لل…
Ruud LubbersRuud Lubbers pada tahun 1986 Komisioner Tinggi PBB untuk PengungsiMasa jabatan1 Januari 2001 – 20 Februari 2005 PendahuluSadako OgataPenggantiAntónio GuterresPerdana Menteri BelandaMasa jabatan4 November 1982 – 22 Agustus 1994Penguasa monarkiBeatrixWakilGijs van Aardenne (1982–1986) Rudolf de Korte (1986–1989) Wim Kok (1989–1994) PendahuluDries van AgtPenggantiWim KokMenteri PerekonomianMasa jabatan11 Mei 1973 – 19 Desember 1977Perdana MenteriJ…