Libraries have been deliberately or accidentally destroyed or badly damaged. Sometimes a library is purposely destroyed as a form of culturicide.[1]
There are examples of libraries accidentally destroyed by human actions. Others were damaged by natural disasters like earthquakes, floods or accidental fires.
Library fires have happened sporadically through the centuries: notable examples are the destruction of the Library of Alexandria, the destruction of Library of Nalanda in India and the accidental burning of the Duchess Anna Amalia Library in Weimar, Germany.
Causes and prevention
In earlier times mildew was considered a major problem in many libraries, and so the emphasis on library design was to increase air flow by, for example, leaving openings under the shelves in adjoining floors. In a fire, particularly one that starts on any floor except the top level, the flames would be drawn from floor to floor by the air flow, leading quite easily to the destruction of a whole library rather than just a small part.[2]
Advances in technology have reduced the possibility of a library collection being destroyed by fire. These include water sprinklers, fire doors, freezers, alarms, smoke detectors, suppression systems, and emergency generators. Older libraries are usually altered by closing up air flow openings and installing fire doors, alarms and sprinklers. Air conditioning reduces the mold problems. These are all essential parts of new library design.
There is no recovery possible if a book is burnt, so it is accepted that it is better to put out the fire with water and then dry out the books. As mold destroys paper, the books are frozen until they can be dried. This process will damage the book but not destroy it, and the information will be intact.
To reduce the chance of damage from fire, or other causes, and decrease the time needed for recovery after a destructive event, libraries need a disaster management and recovery plan. This can be an ongoing process which will include professional development following updates in technology for key staff, training for the remaining staff, checking and maintaining disaster kits, and review of the disaster plan.
In addition, fire-safety investigations are periodically carried out, especially for historical libraries. The Library of Congress, for example, underwent a year-long inspection beginning in 2000. Before the Congressional Accountability Act of 1995, the Library of Congress and all Capitol Hill buildings were exempt from safety regulations.[3] Balancing historical preservation and contemporary safety standards proves to be a difficult task for "even a 12-year rehabilitation of LC completed in 1997 did not address many fire hazards".[4] After the Compliance Office inspection, however, the LC announced their wholehearted commitment "to achieving the highest level of safety possible" and "the Architect of the Capitol and Library of Congress will report their progress to the Office of Compliance every three months".[3]
Information technology is another reason for careful fire protection. With so many computers in libraries there "is a decrease in floor space and an increase in more compact and powerful computer systems" which generate more heat and require the use of many more outlets, increasing the number of potential ignition sources.[5] From as early as the 1950s the potential dangers of computer equipment, and the facilities that house them, were recognized. Thus, in 1962 the National Fire Protection Association began developing the first safety standards specifically applicable to electronic computer systems.[5] This standard is called NFPA 75 Protection of Information Technology Equipment. FM Global Data Sheet 5–32 is another standard providing guidelines to protect against not only fire, but also water, power loss, etc.[5]
The kingdom was invaded by Hammurabi who defeated Zimri-Lim in battle in c. 1761 BC and ended the Lim dynasty.[6] Mari survived the destruction and rebelled against Babylon in c. 1759 BC, causing Hammurabi to destroy the whole city.[7]
Nineveh was destroyed in 612 BCE by a coalition of Babylonians, Scythians and Medes, an ancient Iranian people. It is believed that during the burning of the palace, a great fire must have ravaged the library, causing the clay cuneiform tablets to become partially baked. This potentially destructive event helped preserve the tablets. As well as texts on clay tablets, some of the texts may have been inscribed onto wax boards which, because of their organic nature, have been lost.
"The building had been destroyed in the Islamic conquest of Caesarea in 639/640 A.D. A thin ash layer in an earlier stratum indicated that the building had probably also been burned when the Persians conquered the city in 614 A.D."[15]
Nalanda University complex (the most renowned repository of Buddhist knowledge in the world at the time) was sacked by Turkic Muslim invaders under the perpetrator; this event is seen as a milestone in the decline of Buddhism in India.[23]
The library was ransacked by troops of Cardinal Cisneros in late 1499, the books were taken to the Plaza Bib-Rambla, where most of them were burned.[27]
The smashing and looting of the Cornish colleges at Glasney and Crantock brought an end to the formal scholarship which had helped to sustain the Cornish language and the Cornish cultural identity.
Most paper records held on Gozo were lost or destroyed during an Ottoman raid in 1551.[29] The raid is said to have "led to the near total destruction of documentary evidence for life in medieval Gozo."[30]
Bishop De Landa, a Franciscan friar and conquistador during the Spanish conquest of Yucatán, wrote: "We found a large number of books in these characters and, as they contained nothing in which were not to be seen as superstition and lies of the devil, we burned them all, which they (the Maya) regretted to an amazing degree, and which caused them much affliction." Only three extant codices are widely considered unquestionably authentic.
After the Kościuszko Uprising (1794), Russian troops, acting on orders from Czarina Catherine II, seized the library's holdings and transported them to her personal collection at Saint Petersburg, where a year later it formed the cornerstone of the newly founded Imperial Public Library.[31] Parts of the collections were damaged or destroyed as they were mishandled while being removed from the library and transported to Russia, and many were stolen.[31][32] According to the historian Joachim Lelewel, the Zaluskis' books, "could be bought at Grodno by the basket".[31] The collection was later dispersed among several Russian libraries. Some parts of the Zaluski collection came back to Poland on two separate dates in the nineteenth century: 1842 and 1863.[31] Government of the re-established Second Polish Republic reclaimed in the 1920s some of the former Załuski Library holdings from the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic following the Treaty of Riga. The original building was destroyed by the Germans during World War II. German soldiers also deliberately destroyed the collection (held in the Krasiński Library at the time - see below) during the planned destruction of Warsaw in October 1944, after collapse of the Warsaw Uprising.[33][34][32] Only 1800 manuscripts and 30,000 printed materials from the original library survived the war. After the war, the original building was rebuilt under the Polish People's Republic.[35][36]
The library was destroyed during the War of 1812 when British forces set fire to the U.S. Capitol during the Burning of Washington.[37] This attack was retaliation for the burning of the Canadian towns of York and Niagara by American troops in 1813.[38] Soon after its destruction, the Library of Congress was reestablished, largely thanks to the purchase of Thomas Jefferson's personal library in 1815. A second fire on December 24, 1851, destroyed a large portion of the Library of Congress' collection again, however, resulting in the loss of about two-thirds of the Thomas Jefferson collection and an estimated 35,000 books in total.[39]
During and after the Mexican Reform War, under the liberal governments of Benito Juárez and Ignacio Comonfort, many convent libraries and Church owned school libraries were sacked or destroyed by Liberal troops and looters, most notably included San Francisco Convent Library, which had over 16,000 books (great majority of them were unique collections of Spanish colonial era productions), the library was totally destroyed. Other important libraries included San Agustín Convent Library, was looted and burned. The Carmen de San Ángel Convent and its library were also totally destroyed (with a few books recovered), other affected convent libraries to different degrees were those of Santo Domingo, Las Capuchinas, Santa Clara, La Merced and the Church owned school Colegio de San Juan de Letrán, among others, all of them in Mexico City. Similar events happened all over Mexico, especially in major cities. Besides books, other items such as altarpieces, unique collections of colonial period Baroque paintings, crosses, sculptures, gold and silver chalices (often robbed and melted) were also lost. Total estimates place the total of lost books and manuscripts at 100,000 by 1884.[40][41]
During the American Civil War, Union troops destroyed most buildings on the University of Alabama campus, including its library of approximately 7,000 volumes.[42]
Mosque-Library
Turnovo, Bulgaria
Ottoman Empire
1877
Christian Bulgarians
Turkish books in a library were destroyed when the mosque was burned.[43]
Disputed. Possibly the Kansu Braves besieging the west of the Legation Quarter, or possibly by the international defending forces.
During the Siege of the International Legations in Beijing at the height of the Boxer Rebellion, the unofficial national library of China at the Hanlin Academy, which was adjacent to the British Legation, was set on fire (by whom and whether deliberately or accidentally is still disputed) and almost entirely destroyed. Many of the books and scrolls that survived the flames were subsequently looted by forces of the victorious foreign powers.
The Germans set the library on fire as part of the burning of the entire city in an attempt to use terror to quell Belgian resistance to occupation.[45] The library caught again fire during the World War II German invasion of Louvain, Belgium.[46]
On 6 May 1933, the Deutsche Studentenschaft made an organised attack on the Institute of Sex Research. A few days later, the institute's library and archives were publicly hauled out and burned in the streets of the Opernplatz.
Revolutionaries or bombs thrown by government airplanes[52]
During the Asturian miners' strike of 1934, armed revolutionaries took Oviedo and were repressed by the Spanish Army on orders by General Francisco Franco.
During World War II, Japanese military forces destroyed or partly destroyed numerous Chinese libraries, including libraries at the National University of Tsing Hua, Peking (lost 200,000 of 350,000 books), the University Nan-k'ai, T'ien-chin (totally destroyed, 224,000 books lost), Institute of Technology of He-pei, T'ien-chin (completely destroyed), Medical College of He-pei, Pao-ting (completely destroyed), Agricultural College of He-pei, Pao-ting (completely destroyed), University Ta Hsia, Shanghai (completely destroyed), University Kuang Hua, Shanghai (completely destroyed), National University of Hunan (completely destroyed).[53]
Destroyed during the World War IIbombing of Belgrade, on the order of Adolf Hitler himself.[54] Around 500.000 volumes and all collections of the library were destroyed in one of the largest book bonfires in European history.[55]
The library (which housed the collections of the former Zamoyski Academy) was deliberately set ablaze by the Nazi German troops in the aftermath of the suppression of the Warsaw Uprising of 1944. The burning of this library was part of the general planned destruction of Warsaw. Depending on source, 1800 to 3000 items constituting only 1.5% to 3% of the original collection (albeit the most valuable part) survived, partially due to the fact that the troops burning the library did not notice the entrance to the basement at the rear side of the building.[56]
In the aftermath of the suppression of the Warsaw Uprising of 1944, the archives (one of the pair of archives housing historical documents of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, with the other located in Vilnius) were not only deliberately set ablaze, but the Nazi German troops also entered each of the nine accessible fire-proof vaults in the underground shelter and meticulously burned one after another (entrance to the 10th was blocked by rubble, thus saving its contents). Part of the general planned destruction of Warsaw.[57]
US firebombing of Tokyo in May 1945 destroyed many private Japanese libraries such as the 40,000 volumes in Hasegawa Nyozekan's house.[58] The firebombing of Tokyo destroyed the majority of personal libraries there with many publications from before the war being permanently lost.[59] Firebombing damaged Keio university in Tokyo.[60]
Before the outbreak of World War II the library already contained 500,000 book volumes. In January 1945 it was set ablaze by retreating Nazi German soldiers. As a result, 300,000 books were destroyed, another 100,000 were looted.[61]
The retreating Nazi German troops planted explosives in the building and triggered detonation, demolishing the entire structure and burning 90% of the collection, while the remaining 10% were looted in advance.
The 1975 war fighting began in Beirut's downtown where the National Library was located. During the war years, the library suffered significant damage. According to some sources, 1200 of most precious manuscripts disappeared, and no memory is left of the Library's organization and operational procedures of that time.
In May 1981, a mob composed of thugs and plainclothes police officers went on a rampage in minority Tamil-dominated northern Jaffna, and burned down the Jaffna Public Library. At least 95,000 volumes – the second largest library collection in South Asia – were destroyed.[62]
Prior to its destruction by Indian troops, the library hosted a vast collection of an estimated 20,000 literary works, including 11,107 books, 2,500 manuscripts, newspaper archives, historical letters, documents/files, and others mostly on Sikhism and in the Punjabi language but also on other topics and in other languages.[63][64] Its destruction could have been a desperate act on failure to locate letters or documents that could have implicated the then Indian government and its leader Indira Gandhi.[65][66]
After a year of repeated, minor arson attempts against an information bureau for immigrants located in the building, the library is eventually burnt down to the ground.
Before the library was burned down, it contained over 20,000 manuscripts with only a fraction of them having been scanned as of January 2013. Before and during the occupation, more than 300,000 Timbuktu Manuscripts from the Institute and from private libraries were saved and moved to more secure locations.[82][83][84]
Digitization effort to reduce the nine original libraries to seven and save $C443,000 annual cost.[86] Only 5–6% of the material was digitized, and scientific records and research created at a taxpayer cost of tens of millions of dollars were dumped, burned, and given away.[87] Particularly noted are baseline data important to ecological research, and data from 19th century exploration.
Seven Bosnian rioters suspected of having started the fire; two (Salem Hatibović and Nihad Trnka)[91] were arrested.[92]
On 4 April 2014, Salem Hatibović and Nihad Trnka were released (although still under suspicion of terrorism), on conditions that they don't leave their places of residence and abstain from having any contact with each other. Both were also mandated to report to the police once every week.[91]
In the repositories that were burnt, about 60 percent of the material was lost, according to estimates by Šaban Zahirović, the head of the Archives.[95]
Fire spread to 2000 m2 in third Floor. The roof caved in. Additional water damage. Ambient temperature too high for self-freezing of damaged Works. The library contains 14 million books, including rare texts in ancient Slavic languages, documents from the League of Nations, UNESCO, and parliamentary reports from countries including the US dating back as far as 1789.[97]
8,000 rare old books and manuscripts. Manuscripts from the 18th century, Syriac books printed in Iraq's first printing house in the 19th century, books from the Ottoman era, Iraqi newspapers from the early 20th century.[98]
A fire broke out behind a wooden partition serving as a temporary wall during building operations.[107] The fire caused extensive damage, with only 1,000 volumes saved from a stock of 50,000.[107]
St Michael's House was destroyed as a result of the Ash Wednesday bushfires. The entire 40,000 volume library was lost including works from the 16th century.[109]
A lightning strike caused a short circuit in the electrical system which started a fire that destroyed the top floor of the building which housed the library.[110]
At 10:52 a.m. on April 29, 1986, a fire alarm alerted staff and patrons of a fire in the library's main building. Over 350 firefighters responded to the blaze, which burned for about 7 hours. An estimated 400,000 books were destroyed and an additional 350,000 materials suffered significant amounts of smoke and water damaged. The fire was determined to have begun on the fifth tier of the northeast stack.[111]
The 1988 fire in the Library of the USSR Academy of Sciences (now Library of the Russian Academy of Sciences) broke out on Sunday, February 14, 1988, in the newspaper section on the third floor of the library. According to the library's acting director Valeriy Leonov, the fire alarm sounded at 8:13 pm, when the library was closed for visitors. By the time the fire was extinguished the following afternoon, it had destroyed between 190,000 and 300,000[112] books of the total 12 million housed. About 3.5 million volumes initially became damp due to firefighting foam.
On August 1, 1994, Norwich Central Library caught fire due to an electrical fault. Over one hundred firefighters responded as the flames escalated and smoke became visible from twenty miles away. Over 100,000 books and thousands of historical documents were destroyed.[114]
On May 24, 2014, a fire began inside the Charles Rennie Mackintosh building at the Glasgow School of Art. The Mackintosh Library was lost in the blaze; however all students and staff were directed to safety and no injuries resulted.[115] The fire began after gases from an expanding foam canister being used in a student project were ignited by a sparking projector. At the time of the incident, the building's recently installed fire suppression system was not yet operational.[116] While the Mackintosh building was under renovation following the 2014 fire, a second fire broke out around 11:15 p.m. on June 15, 2018. Larger in scale than the previous fire, the damages that resulted destroyed all of the building's renovation progress, as well as part of the school that had been left untouched by the first fire.[117]
In the very early hours of December 18, 2015, the Mzuzu University library caught fire. Although the library's wooden structure and carpeting spread the flames rapidly, students, staff, and firefighters on the scene attempted to rescue materials by carrying them out of the building and away from the flames. But by 5:00 a.m. the library collapsed, resulting in the loss of 45,000 volumes. Then a sudden rainstorm heightened the damage by soaking materials that had been carried out of the burning building.[119]
Partially destroyed by the 2021 Table Mountain fire.[120] However, the library's fire detection systems stopped the destruction of the entire collection.[121]
^ abFineberg, Gail. "Moving Toward a Safer Library. Compliance Office Issues Fire Safety Report," Library of Congress Information Bulletin 60 no. 3, 65, March 2001
^L.A., "Inspection Scorches Fire Safety at LC," American Libraries, 32 no. 3 17–18, March 2001
^ abcFixen, Edward L. and Vidar S. Landa,"Avoiding the Smell of Burning Data," Consulting-Specifying Engineer, May 2006, Vol. 39 Issue 5, p47-51
^Van De Mieroop, Marc (2007) [2005]. King Hammurabi of Babylon: A Biography. Blackwell Ancient Lives. Vol. 19. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-470-69534-0. p.76, 139, 152
^de Crespigny, Rafe (2017). Fire over Luoyang: A History of the Later Han Dynasty 23-220 AD. Leiden: Brill. p. 419. ISBN9789004324916.
^Dirk Rohmann, Christianity, Book-Burning and Censorship in Late Antiquity, (Walter de Gruyter GmbH, 2016), 240.
^John Edwin Sandys, A History of Classical Scholarship From the End of the Sixth Century B.C. to the End of the Middle Ages, (Cambridge University Press, 2011), 113.
^Bull, Robert J. "Caesarea Maritima: The Search for Herod's City." Biblical Archaeology Review, vol. 8, no. 3, 1982.
^Ann Christy, Christians in Al-Andalus:711–1000, (Curzon Press, 2002), 142.
^Libraries, Claude Gilliot, Medieval Islamic Civilization: L-Z, Index, ed. Josef W. Meri, Jere L. Bacharach, (Routledge, 2006), 451.
^Wolverton, Lisa (2001). Hastening Toward Prague: Power and Society in the Medieval Czech Lands. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 134. ISBN0-8122-3613-0.
^Steven Runciman, A History of the Crusades, Vol. II, (Cambridge University Press, 1999), 69.
^C.E. Bosworth, The Later Ghaznavids, (Columbia University Press, 1977), 117.
^The Tomb of Omar Khayyâm, George Sarton, Isis, Vol. 29, No. 1 (July, 1938):16.
^Sen, Gertrude Emerson (1964) The Story of Early Indian Civilization. Orient Longmans
^Ibn Taymiyya, David Waines, The Islamic World, ed. Andrew Rippin, (Routledge, 2008), 382
^George Lane, Daily Life in the Mongol Empire, (Greenwood Press, 2006), 88.
^Robert S. Nelson, The Italian Appreciation and Appropriation of Illuminated Byzantine Manuscripts, Ca. 1200–1450, Dumbarton Oaks Papers 49 (1995): 209-210.
^Mercedes Garcia-Arenal Rodriquez and Fernando Rodríguez Mediano, The Orient in Spain: Converted Muslims, the Forged Lead Books of Granada, and the Rise of Orientalism, transl. Consuelo Lopez-Morillas, (Brill, 2013), 41.
^(DE)Edit Szegedi, Geschichtsbewusstsein und Gruppenidentität, (Bohlau Verlag, 2002), 223.
^Maria Witt (September–October 2005). "The Zaluski Collection in Warsaw". The Strange Life of One of the Greatest European Libraries of the Eighteenth Century. FYI France. Archived from the original on 2021-03-01. Retrieved 2008-02-17.
^University of Louvain, International Dictionary of University Histories, ed. Carol J. Summerfield, Mary Elizabeth Devine, Anthony Levi, (Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 1998), 531.
^Ruiz, David (13 February 2016). "Los revolucionarios volaron la Catedral, pero no la Universidad" [The revolutionaries blew up the Cathedral, but not the University]. Atlántica XXII (in Spanish) (41). Retrieved 9 October 2024. a día de hoy ya no hay plena constancia de que el trágico episodio tenga la firma de los revolucionarios que combatieron en la capital.
^Jelena Čalija, Dejan Ristić (15 March 2020). "Двоструко страдање Народне библиотеке Србије" [Double suffering of the National Library of Serbia]. Politika (in Serbian). p. 8.
^Majewski, Piotr (2005). Wojna i kultura. Instytucje kultury polskiej w okupacyjnych realiach Generalnego Gubernatorstwa 1939–1945. Warsaw: Wydawnictwo TRI. p. 271. ISBN83-7436-003-8.
^Riedlmayer, Andras J (2007). "Crimes of war, crimes of peace: destruction of libraries during and after the Balkan wars of the 1990s". Library Trends. 56 (1). Johns Hopkins University Press: 107–132. doi:10.1353/lib.2007.0057. hdl:2142/3784. S2CID38806101.
^"Homepage". Institute for War & Peace Reporting. Archived from the original on September 22, 2019. Retrieved May 9, 2022.
Frank Noya (1981)Frank Noya (lahir 12 November 1933) adalah seorang musikus Belanda. Ia banyak dikenal sebagai perajut kambing bubur dari De Film van Ome Willem. Di sana, ia memainkan bas betot dan kadang-kadang gitar bas dan ia bermain dengan koleganya Harry Bannink dan Harry Mooten. Artikel bertopik biografi Indonesia ini adalah sebuah rintisan. Anda dapat membantu Wikipedia dengan mengembangkannya.lbs
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