Streptococcus iniae is a species of Gram-positive, sphere-shapedbacterium belonging to the genusStreptococcus. Since its isolation from an Amazon freshwater dolphin in the 1970s, S. iniae has emerged as a leading fish pathogen in aquaculture operations worldwide, resulting in over US$100M in annual losses. Since its discovery, S. iniae infections have been reported in at least 27 species of cultured or wild fish from around the world. Freshwater and saltwater fish including tilapia, red drum, hybrid striped bass, and rainbow trout are among those susceptible to infection by S. iniae. Infections in fish manifest as meningoencephalitis, skin lesions, and septicemia.
S. iniae has occasionally produced infection in humans, especially fish handlers of Asian descent. Human infections include sepsis, toxic shock syndrome, and inflammation of the skin, intervertebral discs, or inner layer of the heart. Identifying S. iniae in the laboratory can be difficult, since the conventional methods used to identify streptococci yield insufficient results. It cannot be grouped by the Lancefield antigen method typically used to categorize Streptococcus species. The two known serotypes can be distinguished biochemically by differences in enzyme activity. Several antibiotics have been used to treat S. iniae infections.
History
Streptococcus iniae was first isolated in 1972, from subcutaneousabscesses in a captive specimen of Amazon river dolphin (Inia geoffrensis) suffering from an infection known as "golf ball disease". The bacterium was found to be sensitive to beta-lactam antibiotics, and the dolphin was treated successfully with penicillin and tylosin. The causative organism was recognized to be a new species of Streptococcus, and was given the name Streptococcus iniae in 1976.[1] Around this time, other streptococcal outbreaks occurred in Asia,[2][3] and the US;[4] some strains associated with the Japanese outbreaks[2][3][5] were later suggested to be S. iniae.[6]
In the 1980s, a purported new species of Streptococcus, named S. shiloi, was identified as one of the causes of an epidemic of meningoencephalitis (an inflammation of the brain and its surrounding membranes) affecting farmed rainbow trout and tilapia in Israel since 1986. Since S. shiloi was alpha-hemolytic, had a G+C% content of 37% and did not ferment sugar galactose, it was not classified as S. iniae, which is beta-hemolytic, has a G+C% content of 32%, and ferments galactose.[7] In 1995, S. shiloi was found in fact to be beta-hemolytic, and after DNA-DNA hybridization techniques with the ATCCtypeS. iniae and recalculation of the G+C% content, was reclassified by the same group as a junior synonym of S. iniae.[8]
S. iniae may be easily misidentified (or not identified at all) by conventional automated microbiology systems. Molecular genetics methods, such as DNA sequencing and DNA-DNA hybridization, can be useful for correct identification, although work by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has suggested they are unnecessary in most cases.[9] Several groups have used 16S rDNA sequencing to identify S. iniae isolates, and while it can differentiate this species from other related species, such as S. porcinus and S. uberis, 16S sequencing cannot be used to differentiate between strains of S. iniae.[16][17][18]Ribotyping is a similar method, by which 16S and 23S rRNA genes are digested with restriction endonucleases and Southern blotted using species-specific oligonucleotide probes.[19] This method is more sensitive than 16S rDNA sequencing, as in addition to species differentiation, it can be used to differentiate between strains. Ribotyping was used in 1997 to differentiate between Israeli and American strains, thus ruling out the possibility of an epidemiological link between outbreaks in the two countries.[17]
Two serotypes of S. iniae are established. The ATCC 29178 type strain first characterized in 1976 by Pier and Madin[1] is representative of serotype I isolates. Serotype II was first identified as the type strain (ATCC 29177) isolated from another dolphin case of "golf ball disease".[22] A biochemical assay measuring arginine dihydrolase activity has been used to distinguish between serotypes (serotype I is positive),[23] though proposed hyperencapsulation of serotype II may represent the most significant functional difference between the two types.[24]
Role in disease
In fish
Epizootics of S. iniae infection in rainbow trout (healthy specimen pictured) have occurred in Israel and Japan.[2][25]
S. iniae is highly pathogenic in freshwater, marine, and euryhaline fish, and is highly lethal: outbreaks may be associated with 30–50% mortality.[26] It is, therefore, one of the foremost economically important pathogens in intensive aquaculture.[27][28] In 1997, the global economic impact of S. iniae infection to the aquaculture industry was estimated at US$100 million (one-tenth of which in the United States).[27] As of 2007, infection had been reported in 27 species of fish, including tilapia (genus Oreochromis and Tilapia), rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch), Japanese amberjack (Seriola quinqueradiata), red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus), and barramundi (Lates calcarifer, which can be an asymptomatic carrier).[14][15][29]Common carp (Cyprinus carpio), channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), and goldfish (Carassius auratus) appear to be resistant.[27] Fish raised in intensive aquaculture operations and subject to environmental stressors (i.e. suboptimal temperature, poor water quality, crowding, handling, etc.) are most prone to S. iniae infection.[30][31][32][33][34] Wild fish populations located both near[10][35] and far from[36] aquaculture operations have also proven susceptible to S. iniae infection.
The site of S. iniae infection and its clinical presentation vary from species to species. In tilapia, S. iniae causes meningoencephalitis, with symptoms including lethargy, dorsal rigidity, and erratic swimming behavior; death follows in a matter of days.[14][26][37] In rainbow trout, it is typically associated with septicemia and central nervous system damage. Symptoms are consistent with septicemia, and include lethargy and loss of orientation (as in tilapia), exophthalmia, corneal opacity, and external and internal bleeding.[25][37]
Most human S. iniae infections are associated with injuries while handling live or fresh infected fish.
S. iniae can cause opportunistic infections in weakened or immunocompromised humans.[27] It is most commonly associated with bacteremiccellulitis, but has been known to cause endocarditis, meningitis, osteomyelitis, and septic arthritis.[15] The first recognized cases of human infection occurred in Texas in 1991 and in Ottawa in 1994, but the sources of infection were not determined.[38] Human infection with S. iniae was also identified in Toronto between 15 and 20 December 1995, when three Asian patients were admitted to a hospital with cellulitis of the hand after injuring themselves while handling raw fish. All three were found to have bacteremia, initially attributed to Streptococcus uberis, but later correctly identified as S. iniae.[14][26] In February 1996, a Chinese man was admitted to the same hospital with sepsis one week after preparing a fresh whole tilapia, and was also diagnosed with S. iniae bacteremia.[14][26] A subsequent epidemiological investigation found other cases in the Toronto area, for a total of nine patients; all were of Asian descent and all had handled raw fish (mostly tilapia) before developing infection.[14] Other cases were later identified in the United States and elsewhere in Canada, and have since been reported in Asia (Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Singapore).[15][39][40] Asian descent is a common trend in the majority of invasive human cases, but it is unknown whether this is due to inherent differences in immunity or because of cultural differences in the fish preparation which lend themselves to a higher incidence of infection.[27]
Control and treatment
Several measures can be taken to control infection in aquaculture once an S. iniae outbreak has been confirmed. Decreasing the quantity of feed given to fish has been shown to reduce mortality rates, as the uptake of bacteria in water is expedited by feeding. Decreasing the density of the fish stock increases survival by reducing injury to fish and lowering the general stress level in the population. Lowering the water temperature and keeping optimal oxygen levels has also been shown to reduce stress to fish and inhibit bacterial growth.[33]
A 2005 study showed the potential for using probiotics for controlling S. iniae infection in trout.[41] This study used the gastrointestinal contents of rainbow trout to scan for bacteria that inhibited growth of S. iniae and Lactococcus garvieae. They identified Aeromonas sobria as a potential candidate for control of S. iniae and L. garvieae infections in aquaculture. A. sobria, given live in the feed, protected the trout when challenged with S. iniae or L. garvieae.[41]
Several antibiotics have been used successfully to treat S. iniae infection in fish. Enrofloxacin, a quinolone antibiotic, has been used to great effect in hybrid striped bass (Morone chrysops × M. saxatilis), although evidence suggested the development of a resistant strain during this trial.[42]Amoxicillin, erythromycin, furazolidone, and oxytetracycline have also been used (the last with varying success, only in barramundi).[27]Vaccination against S. iniae has been attempted with limited success as it only provides up to 6 months' immunity.[27][43]
^Plumb JA, Schachte JH, Gains JL, Peliter W, Carroll B (1974). "Streptococcus sp. from marine fishes along the Alabama and northwest Florida coast of the Gulf of Mexico". Transactions of the American Fisheries Society. 103 (2): 358–61. Bibcode:1974TrAFS.103..358P. doi:10.1577/1548-8659(1974)103<358:SSFMFA>2.0.CO;2.
^Kitao T. (1993). "Streptococcal infections". In V. Inglis, R. J. Roberts, N. R. Bromage (eds.). Bacterial Diseases of Fish. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 196–210. ISBN978-0-632-03497-0.
^Eldar A, Bejerano Y, Bercovier H (1994). "Streptococcus shiloi and Streptococcus difficile: two new streptococcal species causing a meningoencephalitis in fish". Current Microbiology. 28 (3): 139–43. doi:10.1007/BF01571054. S2CID42385454.
^Perera RP, Johnson SK (1994). "Streptococcus iniae associated with mortality of Tilapia nilotica x T. aurea hybrids". Journal of Aquatic Animal Health. 6 (4): 335–40. doi:10.1577/1548-8667(1994)006<0335:SIAWMO>2.3.CO;2.
^ abcdefghAgnew W, Barnes AC (2007). "Streptococcus iniae: an aquatic pathogen of global veterinary significance and a challenging candidate for reliable vaccination". Veterinary Microbiology. 122 (1–2): 1–15. doi:10.1016/j.vetmic.2007.03.002. PMID17418985.
^Bowser PR, Wooster GA, Getchell RG, Timmons MB (1998). "Streptococcus iniae infection of tilapia Oreochromis niloticus in a recirculation production facility". Journal of the World Aquaculture Society. 29 (3): 335–39. Bibcode:1998JWAS...29..335B. doi:10.1111/j.1749-7345.1998.tb00655.x.
^Ndong D, Chen YY, Lin YH, Vaseeharan B, Chen JC (2007). "The immune response of tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus and its susceptibility to Streptococcus iniae under stress in low and high temperatures". Fish and Shellfish Immunology. 22 (6): 686–94. Bibcode:2007FSI....22..686N. doi:10.1016/j.fsi.2006.08.015. hdl:1834/2614. PMID17132470.
^Ferguson HW, St John VS, Roach CJ, Willoughby S, Parker C, Ryan R (2000). "Caribbean reef fish mortality associated with Streptococcus iniae". The Veterinary Record. 147 (23): 662–64. PMID11131554.
^ abAustin D, Austin B (2008). "Characteristics of the diseases". Bacterial Fish Pathogens: Disease of Farmed and Wild Fish. Berlin: Springer. p. 18. ISBN978-1-4020-6068-7. Retrieved on May 6, 2009 through Google Book Search.
^Stoffregen DA, Backman SC, Perham RE, Bowser PR, Babish JG (1996). "Initial disease report of Streptococcus iniae infection in hybrid striped (sunshine) bass and successful therapeutic intervention with the fluoroquinolone antibacterial enrofloxacin". Journal of the World Aquaculture Society. 27 (4): 420–434. Bibcode:1996JWAS...27..420S. doi:10.1111/j.1749-7345.1996.tb00626.x.
Ariana Grande Grande di Dangerous Woman Tour, Februari 2017 Awards and nominations Wins Nominations American Music Awards 3 4 Bambi Awards 1 0 BBC Radio 1's Teen Awards 1 2 BET Awards 0 1 Billboard Music Awards 0 13 Billboard Women in Music 1 0 Bravo Otto 1 2 Brit Awards 0 1 Glamour Awards 0 2 Global Awards 0 2 Grammy Awards 1 5 iHeartRadio Music Awards 3 11 Japan Gold Disc Awards 6 0 Juno Awards 0 1 Lunas del Auditorio 0 1 LOS40 Music Awards 0 2 MTV Europe Music Awards 3 10 MTV Italian Music Aw…
Artikel ini sebatang kara, artinya tidak ada artikel lain yang memiliki pranala balik ke halaman ini.Bantulah menambah pranala ke artikel ini dari artikel yang berhubungan atau coba peralatan pencari pranala.Tag ini diberikan pada Desember 2023. Artikel ini membutuhkan penyuntingan lebih lanjut mengenai tata bahasa, gaya penulisan, hubungan antarparagraf, nada penulisan, atau ejaan. Anda dapat membantu untuk menyuntingnya.Gaya atau nada penulisan artikel ini tidak mengikuti gaya dan nada penulis…
Målselv kommune Málatvuomi suohkanMunisipalitasView of the mountain Istind on the Bardu-Målselv border Lambang kebesaranTroms di NorwayLetak Målselv di TromsNegara NorwegiaCountyTromsDistrictMidt-TromsAdministrative centreMoenPemerintahan • Mayor (2011)Helene Rognli (H)Luas • Total3.321,72 km2 (128,252 sq mi) • Luas daratan3.206,97 km2 (123,822 sq mi) • Luas perairan114,75 km2 (4,431 sq mi)…
Main article: Gymnastics at the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics Women's balance beamat the III Summer Youth Olympic GamesMedalists Klimenko (left), Tang (center), and Morgan (right)VenueAmerica PavilionDate15 OctoberCompetitors8 from 8 nationsWinning score14.033Medalists Tang Xijing China Ksenia Klimenko Russia Amelie Morgan Great Britain← 20142026 → Gymnastics at the2018 Summer Youth OlympicsMulti-disciplineTeammixedAcrobaticPairsmixedArtisticQualifi…
Artikel ini sebatang kara, artinya tidak ada artikel lain yang memiliki pranala balik ke halaman ini.Bantulah menambah pranala ke artikel ini dari artikel yang berhubungan atau coba peralatan pencari pranala.Tag ini diberikan pada November 2022. Carl FischerLahir(1876-10-09)9 Oktober 1876DenmarkMeninggal7 Agustus 1953(1953-08-07) (umur 76)DenmarkPekerjaanPemeranTahun aktif1911-1948 Carl Fischer (9 Oktober 1876 – 7 Agustus 1953) adalah seorang pemeran asal Denmark.[1…
Three DaysPoster promosi untuk Three DaysGenreAksi ThrillerDitulis olehKim Eun-heeSutradaraShin Kyung-soo Hong Chang-wookPemeranPark Yoochun Son Hyun-joo Park Ha-sun So Yi-hyunNegara asalKorea SelatanBahasa asliKoreaJmlh. episode16ProduksiProduser eksekutifKim Young-subProduserLee Sang-min Song Jin-seonLokasi produksiKorea SelatanDurasi70 menit Rabu dan Kamis pukul 21:55 (KST)Rumah produksiGolden Thumb PicturesC-JeS EntertainmentRilis asliJaringanSBS (2014)Indosiar (2015)Mentari TV (2022)Rilis5 …
Japanese far-right organization Japan Conference 日本会議Chairman(vacant)General SecretaryYuzo KabashimaAdvisersKoichiro IshiiMichihisa KitashirakawaNaotake TakatsukasaKey peopleIwao AndoFounderKoichi TsukamotoFounded30 May 1997; 26 years ago (1997-05-30)Merger ofNihon wo mamoru Kokumin KaigiNihon wo mamoru KaiHeadquartersVort Aobadai II, Aobadai, Meguro, TokyoMembershipc. 38,000 – 40,000 (2020 est.)[1]IdeologyConservatism[2][3][4]Reli…
العلاقات الأمريكية الإسبانية إسبانيا الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية العلاقات الأمريكية الإسبانية تعديل مصدري - تعديل العلاقات الأمريكية الإسبانية هي العلاقات الثنائية التي تجمع بين الولايات المتحدة وإسبانيا وللولايات المتحدة سفارة في مدريد وقنصليات في …
Об экономическом термине см. Первородный грех (экономика). ХристианствоБиблия Ветхий Завет Новый Завет Евангелие Десять заповедей Нагорная проповедь Апокрифы Бог, Троица Бог Отец Иисус Христос Святой Дух История христианства Апостолы Хронология христианства Ранне…
Pour les articles homonymes, voir Colin. Ne doit pas être confondu avec André Collin. Pour la vedette rapide, voir André Colin (navire). André Colin André Colin en 1946. Fonctions Sénateur du Finistère 26 avril 1959 – 29 août 1978(19 ans, 4 mois et 3 jours) Élection 26 avril 1959 Réélection 23 septembre 196226 septembre 1971 Groupe politique RP (1959-1965)RPCD (1965-1968)UCDP (1968-1978) Député français 6 novembre 1945 – 5 décembre 1958(13 ans et 29 jo…
Traditional Japanese garden located at the University of British Columbia The Nitobe Memorial Garden during mid-April. The Nitobe Memorial Garden is a 2+1⁄2-acre (one hectare) traditional Japanese garden located at the University of British Columbia, just outside the city limits of Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Although it is part of the UBC Botanical Garden, Nitobe Memorial Garden is located next to UBC's Asian Centre, two kilometres from the main UBC Botanical Garden. The entrance…
Artikel ini sebatang kara, artinya tidak ada artikel lain yang memiliki pranala balik ke halaman ini.Bantulah menambah pranala ke artikel ini dari artikel yang berhubungan atau coba peralatan pencari pranala.Tag ini diberikan pada April 2017. Makoto YonekuraInformasi pribadiNama lengkap Makoto YonekuraTanggal lahir 28 Desember 1970 (umur 53)Tempat lahir Prefektur Gunma, JepangPosisi bermain GelandangKarier senior*Tahun Tim Tampil (Gol)1989-1991 NKK 1991-1995 Nagoya Grampus Eight 1996-1998 C…
American politician from Georgia (1915–2003) Lester MaddoxMaddox in 196775th Governor of GeorgiaIn officeJanuary 10, 1967 – January 12, 1971LieutenantGeorge T. SmithPreceded byCarl SandersSucceeded byJimmy Carter7th Lieutenant Governor of GeorgiaIn officeJanuary 12, 1971 – January 14, 1975GovernorJimmy CarterPreceded byGeorge T. SmithSucceeded byZell Miller Personal detailsBornLester Garfield Maddox(1915-09-30)September 30, 1915Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.DiedJune 25, 2003(2003…
Association football stadium in London For other uses, see Stamford Bridge (disambiguation). Stamford BridgeThe BridgeStamford Bridge aerial view (2023)Full nameStamford BridgeLocationFulham,London, SW6EnglandPublic transit Fulham BroadwayOwnerChelsea Pitch OwnersOperatorChelseaExecutive suites51Capacity40,343[4]Record attendance82,905 (Chelsea–Arsenal, 12 October 1935)[3]Field size113 by 74 yards (103.3 m × 67.7 m)[4]SurfaceGrassMaster by Tarkett Sports…
Roseanne Barr a Maui nel 2010 Roseanne Cherrie Barr (Salt Lake City, 3 novembre 1952) è un'attrice, conduttrice televisiva e doppiatrice statunitense, vincitrice di un Emmy Award e un Golden Globe. Indice 1 Biografia 2 Vita privata 3 Filmografia 3.1 Attrice 3.1.1 Cinema 3.1.2 Televisione 3.2 Doppiatrice 4 Riconoscimenti 5 Doppiatrici italiane 6 Note 7 Altri progetti 8 Collegamenti esterni Biografia Roseanne Barr nel 2011 Maggiore di quattro di figli di una famiglia di origine ebraica (il nonno …
Voce principale: Supercupa României. Supercupa României 2015Supercupa României 2015 Competizione Supercupa României Sport Calcio Edizione 17ª Organizzatore FRF Date 8 luglio 2015 Luogo Costanza Partecipanti 2 Formula Gara unica Impianto/i Stadio Farul Risultati Vincitore Târgu Mureș(1º titolo) Secondo Steaua Bucarest Statistiche Incontri disputati 1 Gol segnati 1 (1 per incontro) Cronologia della competizione 2014 2016 Manuale La Supercupa României 2015 è stata la 17ª edizione de…
District in Qazvin province, Iran For the city, see Ziaabad. For other places with a similar name, see Ziaabad. District in Qazvin, IranZiaabad District Persian: بخش ضیاءآبادDistrictZiaabad DistrictCoordinates: 35°58′11″N 49°21′16″E / 35.96972°N 49.35444°E / 35.96972; 49.35444[1]CountryIranProvinceQazvinCountyTakestanCapitalZiaabadPopulation (2016)[2] • Total18,918Time zoneUTC+3:30 (IRST) Ziaabad District (Persian: …
2008 Lao filmSabaidee Luang PrabangTheatrical release posterDirected bySakchai DeenanProduced byAnousone SirisackdaStarringAnanda EveringhamRelease date 2008 (2008) Running time90 minutesCountriesLaosThailandLanguagesLaoThai Sabaidee Luang Prabang (Thai: สะบายดี หลวงพะบาง, English title: Good Morning, Luang Prabang) is a 2008 romantic drama film directed by Sakchai Deenan and starring Ananda Everingham. It was the first commercial film shot in Laos since the …
Early 5th-century King of the Suebi Not to be confused with Hermeneric. Later medieval representation of Hermeric Hermeric (died 441[1]) was the king of the Suevi from at least 419 and possibly as early as 406 until his abdication in 438. Biography Before 419 Suebic migrations across Europe. Nothing is known for sure about Hermeric before 419, the year in which he is first mentioned; namely, he became king of the Suebi (or Suevi) in the city of Braga (Bracara Augusta) according to bishop…