The history of the Jews in Ukraine dates back over a thousand years; Jewish communities have existed in the modern territory of Ukraine from the time of the Kievan Rus' (late 9th to mid-13th century).[10][11] Important Jewish religious and cultural movements, from Hasidism to Zionism, arose there. According to the World Jewish Congress, the Jewish community in Ukraine constitutes Europe's third-largest and the world's fifth-largest.[3]
In the westernmost region, Jews were mentioned for the first time in records in 1030. During the Khmelnytsky Uprising between 1648 and 1657, an army of Cossacks massacred and took large numbers of Jews, Roman Catholics, and Uniate Christians into captivity. One estimate (1996) reported that 15,000-30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were completely destroyed.[15] More recent estimates (2014) report mortality of 3,000-6,000 people between the years 1648–1649.[16]
During 1821 anti-Jewish riots in Odesa followed the death of the Greek OrthodoxPatriarch in Constantinople, in which 14 Jews were recorded killed. Some sources claim this episode as the first pogrom.[17] At the start of the 20th century, anti-Jewish pogroms continued, leading to large-scale emigration. In 1915, the imperial Russian government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas.[18][19]
Pogroms erupted in January 1919 in the northwest province of Volhynia and spread to many other regions[23] and continued until 1921.[24] The actions of the Soviet government by 1927 led to a growing antisemitism.[25]
Total civilian losses in Ukraine during World War II and the German occupation are estimated at seven million. More than one million Soviet Jews, including 225,000 in Belarus,[26] were killed by the Einsatzgruppen and their many Ukrainian supporters. Most of them were killed in Ukraine because most pre-WWII Soviet Jews lived in the Pale of Settlement, of which Ukraine was the biggest part. The major massacres against Jews occurred mainly in the first phase of the occupation, although they continued until the return of the Red Army. In 1959 Ukraine had 840,000 Jews, a decrease of almost 70% from 1941 totals (within Ukraine's current borders). Ukraine's Jewish population continued to decline significantly during the Cold War. In 1989, Ukraine's Jewish population was only slightly more than half of what it was in 1959. During and after the collapse of communism in the 1990s, the majority of Jews in 1989 left the country and moved abroad (mostly to Israel).[27] Antisemitism, including violent attacks on Jews, is still a problem in Ukraine.[28]
In Galicia, Jews were mentioned for the first time in 1030. From the second part of the 14th century, they were subjects of Polish kings and magnates. The Jewish population of Galicia and Bukovina, part of Austria-Hungary, made up 5% of the global Jewish population.
From the founding of the Kingdom of Poland in the 10th century through the creation of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569, Poland was one of the most diverse countries in Europe. It became home to one of the world's largest and most vibrant Jewish communities. The Jewish community in the territory of Ukraine-proper during the Commonwealth became one of the largest and most important ethnic minority groups in Ukraine.[citation needed]
A 1996 estimate reports that 15,000-30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were destroyed.[15] A 2014 estimate reduces the toll to 3,000-6,000 from 1648–1649; of these, 3,000-6,000 Jews were killed by Cossacks in Nemirov in May 1648 and 1,500 in Tulczyn in July 1648.[16]
Cossack Mamay and the Haidamaka hang a Jew by his heels. Ukrainian folk art, 19th century
The Cossack Uprising and the Deluge left a deep and lasting impression on Jewish social and spiritual life.[citation needed]
This was a time of mysticism and overly formal rabbinism. The teachings of Israel ben Eliezer, known as the Baal Shem Tov, or BeShT, (1698–1760) had a profound effect on Eastern European Jews.[citation needed] His disciples taught and encouraged a new and fervent brand of Judaism, related to Kabbalah, known as Hasidism. The rise of Hasidism influenced Haredi Judaism, with a continuous influence through many Hasidic dynasties.
A different movement was started by Jacob Frank in the middle of the 18th century. Frank's teachings were unorthodox (such as purification through transgression and adoption of elements of Christianity). He was excommunicated along with his numerous followers. They eventually converted to Catholicism.[31]
During 1821 anti-Jewish riots in Odesa after the death of the Greek Orthodox patriarch in Constantinople, 14 Jews were killed. Some sources mark this episode as the first pogrom,[32] while according to others (such as the Jewish Encyclopedia, 1911 ed.) say the first pogrom was an 1859 riot in Odesa. The term became common after a wave of anti-Jewish violence swept the southern Russian Empire (including Ukraine) between 1881 and 1884, after Jews were blamed for the assassination of Alexander II.
In May 1882, Alexander III of Russia introduced temporary regulations called May Laws that remained in effect until 1917. Systematic policies of discrimination, strict quotas on the number of Jews allowed to obtain education and professions caused widespread poverty and mass emigration. In 1886, an edict of Expulsion was applied to Jews in Kyiv. In 1893–1894, some areas of Crimea were removed from the Pale.
When Alexander III died in Crimea on 20 October 1894, according to Simon Dubnow: "as the body of the deceased was carried by railway to St. Petersburg, the same rails were carrying the Jewish exiles from Yalta to the Pale. The reign of Alexander III began with pogroms and concluded with expulsions."[33]
Odesa became the home of a large Jewish community during the 19th century, and by 1897 Jews were estimated to account for some 37% of the population.[34]
Jews were over-represented in the Russian revolutionary leadership. However, most were hostile to Jewish culture and Jewish political parties, and were loyal to the Communist Party's atheism and proletarian internationalism, and committed to stamping out any sign of "Jewish cultural particularism".
Counter-revolutionary groups, including the Black Hundreds, opposed the Revolution with violent attacks on socialists and pogroms against Jews. A backlash came from the conservative elements of society, notably in spasmodic anti-Jewish attacks – around five hundred were killed in a single day in Odesa. Nicholas II claimed that 90% of revolutionaries were Jews.
At the start of 20th century, anti-Jewish pogroms continued to occur in cities and towns across the Russian Empire such as Kishinev, Kyiv, Odesa, and many others. Numerous Jewish self-defense groups were organized to prevent the outbreak of pogroms among which the most successful one was under the leadership of Mishka Yaponchik in Odesa.
In 1905, a series of pogroms erupted at the same time as the Revolution against the government of Nicholas II. The chief organizers of the pogroms were the members of the Union of the Russian People (commonly known as the "Black Hundreds").[35]
From 1911 to 1913, the antisemitic tenor of the period was characterized by a number of blood libel cases (accusations of Jews murdering Christians for ritual purposes). One of the most famous was the two-year trial of Menahem Mendel Beilis, who was charged with the murder of a Christian boy.[36] The trial was showcased by the authorities to illustrate the perfidy of the Jewish population.[37]
From March to May 1915, in the face of the German army, the government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas, mainly the Pale of Settlement.[18][19]
During the 1917 Russian Revolution and the ensuing Russian Civil War, an estimated 70,000 to 250,000 Jewish civilians were killed in atrocities throughout the former Russian Empire. In modern Ukraine an estimated 31,071 died in 1918–1920.[20]
1917. 100 karbovanets of the Ukrainian National Republic. Revers. 3 languages: Ukrainian, Polish and Yiddish.
During the establishment of the Ukrainian People's Republic (UPR, 1917–1921),[21] pogroms continued. In the UPR, Yiddish was an official language,[38] while all government posts and institutions had Jewish members.[38] A Ministry for Jewish Affairs was established (it was the first modern state to do so).[21][38] Rights of Jewish culture were guaranteed.[21] Jewish parties abstained or voted against the Tsentralna Rada's Fourth Universal of 25 January 1918 which was aimed at breaking ties with Bolshevik Russia and proclaiming a sovereign Ukrainian state,[38] since all Jewish parties were strongly against Ukrainian independence.[38]
In Ukraine alone, the number of civilian Jews killed during the period was estimated to be between 35,000 and 50,000. Archives declassified after 1991 provide evidence of a higher number; in the period from 1918 to 1921, "according to incomplete data, at least 100,000 Jews were killed in Ukraine in the pogroms."[39] The Ukrainian People's Republic did issue orders condemning pogroms and attempted to investigate them.[21] But it lacked authority to stop violence.[21] In the last months of its existence it lacked any power to create social stability.[38]
Among the prominent Ukrainian statesmen of this period were Moisei Rafes, Pinkhas Krasny, Abram Revutsky, Moishe Zilberfarb, and many others. (see General Secretariat of Ukraine) The autonomy of Ukraine was openly greeted by the Ukrainian Jewish Volodymyr Zhabotinsky.
Between April and December 1918 the Ukrainian People's Republic was non-existent and overthrown by the Ukrainian State of Pavlo Skoropadsky[21][40] who ended the experiment in Jewish autonomy.[38]
Provisional Government of Russia and Soviets
The February 1917 revolution brought a liberal Provisional Government to power in the Russian Empire. On 21 March/3 April, the government removed all "discrimination based upon ethnic religious or social grounds".[41] The Pale was officially abolished. The removal of the restrictions on Jews' geographical mobility and educational opportunities led to a migration to the country's major cities.[42]
One week after the 25 October / 7 November 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, the new government proclaimed the "Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples [Nations] of Russia," promising all nationalities the rights of equality, self-determination and secession. Jews were not specifically mentioned in the declaration, reflecting Lenin's view that Jews did not constitute a nation.[43]
In 1918, the RSFSR Council of Ministers issued a decree entitled "On the Separation of Church from State and School from Church", depriving religious communities of the status of juridical persons, the right to own property and the right to enter into contracts. The decree nationalized the property of religious communities and banned their assessment of religious tuition. As a result, religion could be taught or studied only in private.[44]
On 1 February 1918 the Commissariat for Jewish National Affairs was established as a subsection of the Commissariat for Nationality Affairs. It was mandated to establish the "dictatorship of the proletariat in the Jewish streets" and attract the Jewish masses to the regime while advising local and central institutions on Jewish issues. The Commissariat was also expected to fight the influence of Zionist and Jewish-Socialist Parties.[45][46] On 27 July 1918 the Council of People's Commissars issued a decree stating that antisemitism is "fatal to the cause of the ... revolution". Pogroms were officially outlawed.[47] On 20 October 1918 the Jewish section of the CPSU (Yevsektsia) was established for the Party's Jewish members; its goals were similar to those of the Jewish Commissariat.[41][48][49][50][51]
The White Army and counterrevolutionary pogroms
In contrast with the Bolshevik government's official policy of equality among citizens, antisemitism remained deeply entrenched in the political and social ideologies of the tsarist counterrevolutionaries, especially among paramilitary groups such as the Black Hundreds. These militias incited and organized pogroms against Russian Jews. The official slogan of the Black Hundreds was "Bei Zhidov," meaning 'Beat the Jews.'[52] Thus, during the Russian Civil War that followed the 1917 Revolution, the Jews became a crucial site of the conflict between revolutionary Reds and counterrevolutionary Whites, particularly in the contested territory of Ukraine. The Bolsheviks' official opposition to antisemitism—coupled with the prominence of Jews such as Leon Trotsky within the Bolshevik ranks—allowed the Christian nationalist movements of both the White Army and the emergent Ukrainian National Republic to link Ukrainian Jews to the despised communism. These connections, combined with the cultural tradition of antisemitism among Russian peasantry,[53] provided ample justification for the Whites to attack Ukraine's Jewish population. Between 1918 and 1921, almost all of the approximately 2,000 pogroms carried out in Ukraine were organized by White Army forces.[54] eyewitnesses reported hearing counterrevolutionary milita members expound slogans such as, "We beat the Yids, we beat the Commune", and "This is the answer to the Bolsheviks for the Red Terror."[53] Recent studies hold that about 30,000 Jews were killed in these pogroms, while another 150,000 died from wounds sustained during the violence.[54]
The pogroms that erupted in January 1919 in the northwest province of Volhynia spread during February and March to the cities, towns, and villages of many other regions of Ukraine.[23] After Sarny it was the turn of Ovruch, northwest of Kyiv. In Tetiev on 25 March, approximately 4,000 Jews were murdered, half in a synagogue set ablaze by Cossack troops under Colonels Kurovsky, Cherkowsy, and Shliatoshenko.[23] Then Vashilkov (6 and 7 April).[55] In Dubovo (17 June) 800 Jews were decapitated in assembly-line fashion.[23] According to David A. Chapin, the town of Proskurov (now Khmelnitsky), near the city of Sudilkov, "was the site of the worst atrocity committed against Jews this century before the Nazis." Pogroms continued until 1921.[24]
On 15 February 1919, during the Ukrainian-Soviet war, OtamanIvan Semesenko initiated a pogrom Proskurov in which many Jews were massacred on Shabbat (parashah Tesaveh). Semesenko claimed that the pogrom was in retaliation for a previous Bolshevik uprising that he believed was led by Jews.[56]
According to the pinqasim record books those murdered in the pogrom included 390 men, 309 women and 76 children. The number of wounded exceeded 500. Two weeks later Order 131 was published in the central newspaper[clarification needed] by the head of Directorate of Ukraine. In it Symon Petliura denounced such actions and eventually executed Otaman Semesenko by firing-squad in November 1919. Semesenko's brigade was disarmed and dissolved. This event is especially remarkable because it was used to justify Sholem Schwarzbard's assassination of the Ukrainian leader in 1926. Although Petliura's direct involvement was never proven, Schwartzbard was acquitted in revenge. The series of Jewish pogroms around Ukraine culminated in the Kyiv pogroms of 1919 between June and October of that year.[57][58]
Bolsheviks/USSR consolidation of power
In July 1919, the Central Jewish Commissariat dissolved the kehillot (Jewish Communal Councils). The kehillot had provided social services to the Jewish community.[59]
From 1919 to 1920, Jewish parties and Zionist organizations were driven underground as the Communist government sought to abolish all potential opposition.[60][61] The Yevsektsiya Jewish section of the Soviet Communist party was at the forefront of the anti-religious campaigns of the 1920s that led to the closing of religious institutions, the break-up of religious communities and the further restriction of access to religious education.[48] To that end a series of "community trials" against the Jewish religion were held. The last known such trial, on the subject of circumcision, was held in 1928 in Kharkiv.[49][50] At the same time, the body worked to establish a secular identity for the Jewish community.[51]
In 1921 many Jews[62]emigrated to Poland, as they were entitled by a peace treaty in Riga to choose the country they preferred. Several hundred thousand joined the already numerous Jewish minority of the Polish Second Republic. Also, during the interwar period, thousands of Jewish refugees from the Soviet Ukraine migrated to Romania.[63][64][65]
On 31 January 1924 the Commissariat for Nationalities' Affairs was disbanded.[66] On 29 August 1924 an official agency for Jewish resettlement, the Commission for the Settlement of Jewish Toilers on the Land (KOMZET), was established. KOMZET studied, managed and funded projects for Jewish resettlement in rural areas.[67][68] A public organization, the Society for the Agricultural Organization of Working Class Jews in the USSR (OZET), was created in January 1925 to help recruit colonists and support the colonization work of KOMZET.[69] For the first few years the government encouraged Jewish settlements, particularly in Ukraine. Support for the project dwindled throughout the next decade.[70] In 1938 OZET was disbanded, following years of declining activity. The Soviets set up three Jewish national raions in Ukraine as well as two in the Crimea – national raions occupied the 3rd level of the Soviet system, but were all disbanded by the end of World War II.[71]
The cities with the largest populations of Jews in 1926 were Odesa, 154,000 or 36.5% of the total population; Kyiv, 140,500 or 27.3%; Kharkiv, 81,500 or 19.5%; and Dnipropetrovsk, 62,000 or 26.7%. In 1931 Lviv's Jewish population numbered 98,000 or 31.9%, and in Chernivtsi, 42,600 or 37.9%.[72]
On 8 April 1929 the new Law on Religious Associations codified all previous religious legislation. All meetings of religious associations were required to have their agenda approved in advance; lists of members of religious associations had to be provided to the authorities.[73] In 1930 the Yevsektsia was dissolved,[51] leaving no central Soviet-Jewish organization. Although the body had served to undermine Jewish religious life, its dissolution led to the disintegration of Jewish secular life as well; Jewish cultural and educational organizations gradually disappeared.[74]</ref> When the Soviet government reintroduced the use of internal passports in 1933, "Jewish" was considered an ethnicity for those purposes.[75]
As the Soviet government annexed territory from Poland, Romania (both would be incorporated into the Ukrainian SSR after World War II[21]) and the Baltic states,[78] roughly two million Jews became Soviet citizens.[79][80] Restrictions on Jews that had existed in those countries were lifted.[81] At the same time, Jewish organizations in the transferred territories were shut down and their leaders were arrested and exiled.[82] Approximately 250,000 Jews escaped or were evacuated from the annexed territories to the Soviet interior prior to the Nazi invasion.[83]
In 1921, Crimea became an autonomous republic. In 1923, the All-Union Central Committee passed a motion to resettle a large number of the Jewish population from Ukrainian and Belarusian cities to Crimea, numbering 570,400 families. The plan to further resettle Jewish families was confirmed by the Central Committee of the USSR on 15 July 1926, assigning 124 million roubles to the task and also receiving 67 million from foreign sources.[84]
The Soviet initiative of Jewish settlement in Crimea was opposed by Symon Petliura,[85] who regarded it as a provocation. This train of thought was supported by Arnold Margolin[86] who stated that it would be dangerous to set up Jewish colonies there.
The total number of civilians who died during the war and the German occupation of Ukraine is estimated to be as high as seven million. This estimate includes over one million Jews who were shot and killed by the Einsatzgruppen and local Ukrainian collaborators.[88]
The total number of Jews killed in the Holocaust in Eastern Ukraine, or the Ukrainian SSR (within its 1938 borders), is estimated to be slightly less than 700,000 out of a total pre-Holocaust Jewish population of slightly over 1.5 million.[89] Within the borders of Modern Ukraine, the death toll is estimated to be around 900,000.
Post-war situation
Ukraine had 840,000 Jews in 1959, a decrease of almost 70% from 1941 (within Ukraine's current borders). Ukraine's Jewish population declined significantly during the Cold War. In 1989, Ukraine's Jewish population was only slightly more than half of what it had been in 1959.
In 1989, a Soviet census counted 487,000 Jews living in Ukraine.[100][101] Although discrimination by the state all but halted after Ukrainian independence in 1991, Jews were still discriminated against during the 1990s.[102] For instance, Jews were not allowed to attend some educational institutions.[102] Antisemitism has since declined.[103]
The overwhelming majority of the Jews who remained in Ukraine in 1989 then moved to other countries in the 1990s during and after the collapse of Communism.[27] By 1999 there were various Ukrainian Jewish organizations that disputed each other's legitimacy.[104]
In November 2007, an estimated 700 Torah scrolls confiscated from Jewish communities during the Soviet era were returned to Jewish communes by state authorities.[106]
The Ukrainian Jewish Committee was established in 2008 in Kyiv to concentrate the efforts of Jewish leaders in Ukraine on resolving the community's strategic problems and addressing socially significant issues. The Committee declared its intention to become one of the world's most influential organizations protecting the rights of Jews and "the most important and powerful structure protecting human rights in Ukraine".[107]
In April 2014, leaflets were distributed by three masked man as people left a synagogue in Donetsk ordering Jews to register to avoid losing their property and citizenship "given that the leaders of the Jewish community of Ukraine support the Banderitejunta in Kyiv[a] and are hostile to the OrthodoxDonetsk Republic and its citizens".[128][129][130] While many speak of a hoax (concerning the authorship of the tracts) which appeared in international media, the fact that these flyers were distributed remains undisputed.[128]
Due to the Euromaidan, Ukrainian Jews making aliyah from Ukraine grew 142% during the first four months of 2014 compared to the previous year.[131] 800 people arrived in Israel over January–April, and over 200 signed up for May 2014.[131] On the other hand, chief rabbi and Chabad emissary of Kyiv Rabbi Jonathan Markovitch claimed in late April 2014 "Today, you can come to Kyiv, Dnipro or Odesa and walk through the streets openly dressed as a Jew, with nothing to be afraid of".[132]
In February 2022 Russia invaded Ukraine. The Israeli Embassy stayed open on the Sabbath to facilitate the evacuation of Jews. A total of 97 Jews chose to travel to Israel.[141] In addition, 140 Jewish orphans fled to Romania and Moldova.[142][143] 100 Jews fled to Belarus in order to prepare for their eventual move to Israel.[144] On 2 March 2022, the Jewish Agency for Israel reported that hundreds of Jewish war refugees sheltering in Poland, Romania and Moldova were scheduled to leave for Israel the following week.[145] Refugee estimates ranged from 10,000[146] to 15,200 refugees had arrived in Israel.[147] In September 2023 it was reported that over 43,000 Jews from Russia and over 15,000 Jews from Ukraine have fled to Israel.[148]
^Tcherikower, Elias. "The Pogroms in Ukraine in 1919". www.berdichev.org. Retrieved 1 February 2023. originally in Yiddish, YIVO Institute, 1965; The Berdichev Revival
^"The Pogroms". Grossmanproject.net. 7 November 1905. Retrieved 16 April 2013.
^Medvedev, R. (ed.). "Losses Suffered by the Population of the USSR, 1918–1958". The Samizdat Register.
^Khiterer, V. (2020). The Holodomor and Jews in Kyiv and Ukraine: An Introduction and Observations on a Neglected Topic. Nationalities Papers, 48(3), 460-475. doi:10.1017/nps.2018.79
^"Ukraine President Orders Return of 700 Torah Scrolls Confiscated by Communist Government", Religious Information Service of Ukraine News, November 2007.
^Kershner, Isabel (23 March 2022). "Ukraine War Ignites Israeli Debate Over Purpose of a Jewish State". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 26 March 2022.
Rothenberg, Joshua (1970). "Jewish Religion in the Soviet Union". In Kochan, Lionel (ed.). The Jews in Soviet Russia Since 1917. London: Institute of Jewish Affairs.
Schechtman, J.B. (1970). "The Jews in Soviet Russia". In Kochan, Lionel (ed.). The Jews in Soviet Russia Since 1917. London: Institute of Jewish Affairs.
Weinryb, Bernard Dov (1970). "Antisemitism in Soviet Russia". In Kochan, Lionel (ed.). The Jews in Soviet Russia Since 1917. London: Institute of Jewish Affairs.
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Artikel ini sebatang kara, artinya tidak ada artikel lain yang memiliki pranala balik ke halaman ini.Bantulah menambah pranala ke artikel ini dari artikel yang berhubungan atau coba peralatan pencari pranala.Tag ini diberikan pada November 2022. SantoArtémides ZattiS.D.B.RelijiusLahir(1880-10-12)12 Oktober 1880Boretto, Reggio Emilia, Kerajaan ItaliaMeninggal15 Maret 1951(1951-03-15) (umur 70)Videma, Río Negro, ArgentinaDihormati diGereja Katolik RomaBeatifikasi14 April 2002, Lapangan Sant…
BlackAlbum studio karya Lee HyoriDirilis4 Juli 2017Direkam2016-17Genre K-pop BahasaKoreaLabelKiwi Media Group, LOENL200001444ProduserLee HyoriKronologi Lee Hyori Monochrome(2013) Black(2017) Singel dalam album Black SeoulDirilis: 28 Juni 2017 BlackDirilis: 4 Juli 2017 White SnakeDirilis: 5 Juli 2017 Black adalah album studio keenam oleh penyanyi dan penulis lagu Korea Selatan Lee Hyori. Album ini dirilis pada 4 Juli 2017 oleh Kiwi Media Group dan didistribusikan oleh LOEN Entertainment. Albu…
Artikel ini sebatang kara, artinya tidak ada artikel lain yang memiliki pranala balik ke halaman ini.Bantulah menambah pranala ke artikel ini dari artikel yang berhubungan atau coba peralatan pencari pranala.Tag ini diberikan pada Maret 2016. Koplak Dongkar adalah sebuah lokalisasi WTS di Kabupaten Grobogan Purwodadi, Jawa Tengah. tempat prostitusi di koplak dokar atau pangkalan dokar lokasinya berada di tengah Kota Purwodadi. PSK di Koplak Dongkar berasal dari Semarang, Kudus, Purwodadi, Kendal…
Partai Kebangkitan Nasional Ulama SingkatanPKNUKetua umumChoirul Anam (terakhir)Dibentuk21 November 2006 (2006-11-21)Dibubarkan12 Juni 2022; 20 bulan lalu (2022-06-12)Digabungkan denganPartai Kedaulatan RakyatIdeologiPan-IslamismeDemokrasi IslamPosisi politikSayap kananNomor urut34Politik IndonesiaPartai politikPemilihan umum Partai Kebangkitan Nasional Ulama (PKNU) adalah sebuah partai politik Islam di Indonesia yang didirikan pada tanggal 21 November 2006 di Pondok Pesantre…
Libro dei morti: sono visibili, seduti e in dimensione ridotta, alcuni dei 42 giudici di Maat (dal Papiro di Ani). British Museum, Londra. I giudici di Maat sono divinità egizie appartenenti alla religione dell'antico Egitto, 42 deità giudicanti, divinità minori della giustizia (Maat) che, secondo la visione teologica egizia, avrebbero partecipato alla psicostasia e al giudizio di Osiride nell'aldilà[1][2][3]. Indice 1 Descrizione 1.1 Confessioni negative e pesatura d…
Artikel ini bukan mengenai Lincoln Park. Linkin ParkLinkin Park tampil pada Oktober 2010. Dari kiri ke kanan: Joe Hahn, Dave Farrell, Brad Delson, Mike Shinoda, Rob Bourdon dan Chester Bennington.Informasi latar belakangNama lain Xero (1996–1999) Hybrid Theory (1999) AsalAgoura Hills, California, Amerika SerikatGenre Rok alternatif nu metal metal alternatif rap metal rap rock electronic rock hard rock Tahun aktif1996–2017 (vakum)Label Warner Machine Shop Artis terkait Jay-Z Steve Aoki Situs …
AbdullahTeungku Haji Abdullah Ujong RimbaNamaAbdullahNisbahUjong RimbaKebangsaanIndonesia Abdullah Ujong Rimba atau dikenal dengan sebutan Teungku Haji Abdullah Ujong Rimba (lahir 1 November 1903 di Desa Ujong Rimba, Kecamatan Mutiara, Kabupaten Pidie - meninggal 11 September 1983 pada umur 80 tahun) adalah ulama yang cukup berpengaruh di Aceh.[1][2] Ia juga seorang guru tarekat dan ulama yang berhaluan Ahlussunnah Waljamaah.[2] Ia merupakan ulama yang mempelopori berdiri…