Munda means headman of a village in the Munda-Manki system to govern villages in South-east Chotanagpur. They call themselves horoko or ho ko, which means men.[12]
Robert Parkin notes that the term "Munda" did not belong to the Austroasiatic lexis and is of Sanskrit origin.[13] According to R. R. Prasad, the name "Munde" is a Ho word that means "headman". It is an honorific name given by Hindus, and hence became a tribal name.[14] According to Standing (1976), it was under British rule that the term Munda started to be used for the tribal group.[15]
According to linguist Paul Sidwell, Munda languages arrived on the coast of Odisha from Southeast Asia approximately 4,000 to 3,500 years ago (c. 2000 – c. 1500 BCE).[16][17] The Munda people initially spread from Southeast Asia, but mixed extensively with local Indian populations.[18] They are genetically closely related to Mah Meri and Temuan people of Malaysia.[19]
According to historian R. S. Sharma, tribals who spoke the Munda language occupied the eastern region of ancient India. Many Munda terms occur in Vedic texts that were written between 1500 BCE and 500 BCE. Their presence in texts compiled in the upper Gangetic basin late in that period suggests that Munda speakers were there at the time.[20] According to Barbara A. West, the Mundas claim origin in Uttar Pradesh, and a steady flow eastward in history as other groups moved into their original homeland; she suggests that they inhabited a "much larger territory" in ancient India.[21] Recent studies suggest that Munda languages spread as far as Eastern Uttar Pradesh but not beyond that, and impacted Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, as some groups such as Musahar have Munda genetic lineage. The claim of a Munda presence in the Upper Gangetic plain has no linguistic or genetic basis.[22]
1903 Group photo of Mundas in Chota Nagpur.
In the late 1800s, during the British Raj, the Mundas were forced to pay rents and work as bonded labourers to the zamindars. During the Kol uprising in 1823–1833, some Manki Munda revolted due to their disposition and attacked Thikedars, other Mankis, plundered and destroyed villages. This insurgency was suppressed by Thomas Wilkinson.[23] During the 19th century, Munda freedom fighter Birsa Munda began the protest marches calling for non-payment of rents and remission of forest dues. He led guerrilla warfare to uproot the British Raj and establish Munda Raj. He was caught by Company forces, along with his supporters, and died in jail. He is still revered in Jharkhand.[24][better source needed]
Birsa Munda rebellion in 1800s
Nomadic hunters in the India tribal belt, they became farmers and some were employed in basketwork. With the listing of the Munda people as Scheduled Tribes, many are employed in various governmental organisations (particularly Indian Railways).[25]
Kinship patterns
Munda are divided into a number of exogamous clans. Clans among Mundas are known as Killi, which is similar to Sanskrit word Kula. Munda are patrilineal, and clan name descends father to son. According to tradition, people of the same clan are descendants of the same forefather. Clans among Mundas are of totemic origin. Some clans are:[26]
Involved in agriculture, the Munda people celebrate the seasonal festivals of Mage Parab, Phagu, Karam, Baha parab, Sarhul and Sohrai. Some seasonal festivals have coincided with religious festivals, but their original meaning remains. Their deity is Singbonga.[28]
Music
They have many folk songs, dances, tales and traditional musical instruments. Both sexes participate in dances at social events and festivals. The naqareh is a principal musical instrument.[citation needed] Munda refer to their dance and song as durang and susun respectively. Some folk dances of the Munda are Jadur, Karam Susun and Mage Susun.[29] Mundari music is similar to the music of Sadan. Mundari Mage song (winter) rhythm is similar to the Nagpuri Fagua song (winter, spring) rhythm.[30]
Mundari dance
Ritual
The Munda people have elaborate rituals to celebrate birth, death, engagement and marriage.
Munda practice clan exogamy and tribal endogamy. Monogamy is the norm. Bride price is prevalent. Marriage ceremony starts with Sagai and ends with Bidai. Munda enjoy this occasion with feast, drinks and dance.[31] According to Sarat Chandra Roy, Sindurdaan ceremony and turmeric use in marriage clearly reflect Hindu elements borrowed into Munda tradition.[32]
Munda people of Jharkhand also follow the age old tradition of Patthalgari, i.e., stone erection, in which the tribal community residing in the village buries a large inverted U-shaped dressed headstone on the head side of a grave or at the entrance to the village, in which is inscribed the family tree of the dead persons.[33] There are some other types of patthalgari also:-
Horadiri - It is the stone in which family tree is written.
Chalpadiri or Saasandiri - It is the stone in remarking boundary of any village and its limits.
Magodiri - This is the headstone of a social criminal who committed polygamy or unsocial marriage.
Ziddiri - This is the stone placed over burial of placenta and dried navel part of a newborn.[34][35]
Munda House at "State Tribal Fair- 2020", BhubaneswarMunda Lady
Administrative system
Munda-Manki governing system was prevalent in Kolhan region of Jharkhand.
Munda govern their villages by Munda-Manki system. Head of village is called Munda, informant of village is called Dakuwa, village priest is called Pahaan, assistant of Pahaan is called Pujhar, head of 15 to 20 villages is called Manki, assistant of Manki is called Tahshildar, which collected taxes. The priest "Deori" is also prevalent among Hos, Bhumij, Bhuyan, Sounti, Khonds tribe of Odisha and Chutia people of Assam.[36][a] In Chotanagpur division, Munda have adopted Pahan as their village priest.[38]
Economic condition
In a 2016 research paper on subsistence strategies of Mundas in a village of Sunderbans in West Bengal, it was found that many people migrate out of their residences because of poor economic conditions and landlessness. This rural to urban migration has followed a greater trend within India. Men and women engage in forest product collection, cultivation, small business and agricultural as well as non-agricultural jobs. A person or a family may be engaged in multiple occupations, often undertaking risky visits to the forests and rivers. It was also found that younger generation preferred to engage as migrant workers outside the village and often outside the district and the state.[39]
Jesuit priest John-Baptist Hoffmann (1857–1928) studied the language, customs, religion and life of the Munda people, publishing the first Mundari language grammar in 1903. With the help of Menas Orea, Hoffmann published the 15-volume Encyclopaedia Mundarica. The first edition was published posthumously in 1937, and a third edition was published in 1976. The Mundas and Their Country, by S. C. Roy, was published in 1912. Adidharam (Hindi:आदि धर्म) by Ram Dayal Munda and Ratan Singh Manki, in Mundari with a Hindi translation, describes Munda rituals and customs.[40]
^Osada, Toshiki (19 March 2008). "3. Mundari". In Anderson, Gregory (ed.). The Munda languages. New York: Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-32890-6. ...the designation Munda is used for the language family. Mundari, on the other hand, refers to an individual language, namely the language of Munda people.
^Parkin, Robert (1993). "Second Reply to Pfeffer"(PDF). University of Oxford. p. 161. Archived(PDF) from the original on 16 September 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2020. The term 'Munda' is of Sanskritic origin and therefore not original in any sense to Austroasiatic speakers, although it has come to be used by one tribe as an alternative to their own term 'Horo' (Le. Roy's group; cf. Pfeffer above, p. 154; also Parkin 1990: 17, 23).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: The Planet film – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) 2006 Swedish filmThe PlanetThere is only one planet and it has its limitsDirected byJohan Söderberg, Michael Stenberg, Linus Torel…
قرية ماكيدون الإحداثيات 43°04′08″N 77°18′09″W / 43.0689°N 77.3025°W / 43.0689; -77.3025 [1] تقسيم إداري البلد الولايات المتحدة[2] التقسيم الأعلى ماكيدون خصائص جغرافية المساحة 3.191554 كيلومتر مربع3.190701 كيلومتر مربع (1 أبريل 2010) ارتفاع 144 متر عدد السكان …
Census-designated place in Hawaii, United States Hilo redirects here. For other uses, see Hilo (disambiguation). Census-designated place in Hawaii, United StatesHilo, HawaiiCensus-designated placeFrom top to bottom, left to right: S. Hata Building, Hilo Masonic Lodge Hall-Bishop Trust Building, Hilo Bay with Mauna Kea, Rainbow (Waiānuenue) Falls, Federal Building, Post Office and Courthouse and Liliuokalani Park and Gardens.Location within Hawaii County and HawaiiHiloShow map of HawaiiHiloShow …
Cet article est une ébauche concernant un homme politique français. Vous pouvez partager vos connaissances en l’améliorant (comment ?) selon les recommandations des projets correspondants. Gustave HumbertFonctionsPremier président de la Cour des comptes1890-1894Garde des Sceaux, ministre de la Justice30 janvier - 7 août 1882Procureur général près la Cour des comptes1877-1880Sénateur inamovible11 décembre 1875 - 24 septembre 1894Député de la Haute-Garonne8 février 1871 - 7 mar…
AalinganamPosterSutradaraI. V. SasiProduserM. RamachandranDitulis olehSherifSkenarioSherifPemeranRaghavanSrideviRani ChandraVincentPenata musikA. T. UmmerSinematograferVipin DasPenyuntingK. NarayananPerusahaanproduksiMurali MoviesDistributorMurali MoviesTanggal rilis 26 November 1976 (1976-11-26) NegaraIndiaBahasaMalayalam Aalinganam adalah sebuah film berbahasa Malayalam India 1976, yang disutradarai oleh I. V. Sasi dan diproduseri oleh M. Ramachandran. Film tersebut dibintangi oleh …
Questa voce o sezione sugli argomenti militari e politici peruviani non cita le fonti necessarie o quelle presenti sono insufficienti. Puoi migliorare questa voce aggiungendo citazioni da fonti attendibili secondo le linee guida sull'uso delle fonti. Segui i suggerimenti del progetto di riferimento. A questa voce o sezione va aggiunto il template sinottico {{Militare}} Puoi aggiungere e riempire il template secondo le istruzioni e poi rimuovere questo avviso. Se non sei …
SmallpdfURLhttps://smallpdf.com/ TipePrivateSloganWe make PDF easy. Bahasa pemrogramanGo dan React Service entry2013 Lokasi kantor pusatZürich Peringkat Alexa▼ 279 (April 2020[update])[1] Smallpdf adalah perangkat lunak gratis yang berbasis website untuk mengompres, mengkonversi dan mengedit dokumen PDF tanpa perlu menginstall aplikasi.[2] Sejarah Smallpdf telah didirikan sejak tahun 2013 oleh Manuel Stofer, Mathis Buchi, dan Lino Teuteberg saat mereka masih tinggal di…
Road in Great Britain This article needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (June 2021) A1 A1 A1(M)Route informationPart of E15 Length410.00 mi (659.83 km)Major junctionsSouth endA1211 in City of London[1]Major intersections M1 M25 A14 A47 M18 M62 M1 A64 A168 A66 A66(M) A194(M) A69 A19 A720North endEdinburgh[2] LocationCountryUnited KingdomPrimarydestinations Londo…
American politician and scholar (1862–1948) Wilbur Lucius Cross71st Governor of ConnecticutIn officeJanuary 7, 1931 – January 4, 1939LieutenantSamuel R. SpencerRoy C. WilcoxT. Frank HayesPreceded byJohn H. TrumbullSucceeded byRaymond E. Baldwin Personal detailsBorn(1862-04-10)April 10, 1862Mansfield, Connecticut, U.S.DiedOctober 5, 1948(1948-10-05) (aged 86)New Haven, Connecticut, U.S.Political partyDemocraticSpouseHelen Baldwin Avery CrossChildrenWilbur Lucius Cross, Jr.Av…
American lawyer and politician (1788-1865) John Reynolds4th Governor of IllinoisIn officeDecember 6, 1830 – November 17, 1834LieutenantZadok CaseyWilliam Lee D. EwingPreceded byNinian EdwardsSucceeded byWilliam Lee D. EwingMember of the U.S. House of Representatives from Illinois's 1st districtIn officeDecember 1, 1834 – March 3, 1837Preceded byCharles SladeSucceeded byAdam W. SnyderIn officeMarch 4, 1839 – March 3, 1843Preceded byAdam W. SnyderSucceeded byRo…
Marvel Comics fictional character Comics character BushmanCover art for Moon Knight vol. 3 #4.Art by David Finch.Publication informationPublisherMarvel ComicsFirst appearanceMoon Knight #1 (Nov. 1980)Created byDoug MoenchBill SienkiewiczIn-story informationAlter egoRaul BushmanSpeciesHumanNotable aliasesRoald Armand Bushman Raoul BushmanAbilitiesPeak human physical conditionRazor-sharp metal teethCarries various weapons Raoul Bushman is a fictional character appearing in American comic books pub…
Private, for-profit university in Winter Park, Florida Full Sail UniversityMottoIf you're serious about your dream, we'll take your dream seriouslyTypePrivate for-profit university[1]Established1979AccreditationACCSCPresidentGarry JonesUndergraduates19,171[2][3][2][3]LocationWinter Park, Florida, United States28°35′41″N 81°18′11″W / 28.59472°N 81.30306°W / 28.59472; -81.30306MascotDouglas DC-3 airplaneWebsitefullsail.edu…
Waktu geologi dalam bentuk diagram, yang dikenal sebagai jam geologi, menunjukkan usia Bumi dalam miliar hingga jutaan tahun dan peristiwa-peristiwa besar yang terjadi serta zaman yang berlangsung. Sejarah geologi Bumi meliputi peristiwa besar yang terjadi di Bumi pada masa lalu sesuai dengan skala waktu geologi, sistem pengukuran kronologis berdasarkan penelitian terhadap lapisan batuan planet (stratigrafi). Bumi terbentuk sekitar 4,54 miliar tahun yang lalu akibat akresi nebula surya, massa be…
Urutan Waktu Perang Dunia II Kronologi Sebelum (Asia · Eropa) 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Topik Front Timur Proyek Manhattan Berikut merupakan urutan waktu peristiwa yang terjadi sepanjang Perang Dunia II. Januari 1944 Januari 1944 1 15 4: Pertempuran Monte Cassino dimulai 4: Rusia menyeberang ke Polandia dari front Ukraina 9: Pasukan Britania menduduki Maungdaw, Burma, sebuah pelabuhan penting bagi persediaan Sekutu. 11: Pertempuran pertama Monte Cassino. Amerika dikalahkan. 12…
Italian singer (1940–2023) You can help expand this article with text translated from the corresponding article in Italian. (May 2023) Click [show] for important translation instructions. View a machine-translated version of the Italian article. Machine translation, like DeepL or Google Translate, is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text…
1993 film Ripa Hits the SkidsOriginal Finnish film posterDirected byChristian LindbladWritten byChristian LindbladStarringSam HuberCinematographyIlkka RuuhijärviRelease date 5 February 1993 (1993-02-05) Running time80 minutesCountryFinlandLanguageFinnish Ripa Hits the Skids (Finnish: Ripa ruostuu) is a 1993 Finnish comedy film directed by Christian Lindblad. It tells the story of Ripa, a young film director whose life seems to be going downhill all the time. Ripa, in debt and alc…
Questa voce o sezione sull'argomento centri abitati della Spagna non cita le fonti necessarie o quelle presenti sono insufficienti. Puoi migliorare questa voce aggiungendo citazioni da fonti attendibili secondo le linee guida sull'uso delle fonti. Segui i suggerimenti del progetto di riferimento. Valdelacasa de Tajocomune Valdelacasa de Tajo – Veduta LocalizzazioneStato Spagna Comunità autonoma Estremadura Provincia Cáceres TerritorioCoordinate39°43′34.68″N 5°16′55.…
Disambiguazione – Se stai cercando il quasi omonimo scultore, vedi Giovan Francesco Rustici. La Maddalena (Fondazione Cariplo) Francesco Rustici detto Il Rustichino (Siena, 1592 – 1626) è stato un pittore italiano. Indice 1 Biografia 2 Opere 3 Bibliografia 4 Altri progetti 5 Collegamenti esterni Biografia Allievo del padre Vincenzo, si avvicinò più tardi a modelli di matrice caravaggesca, caratterizzati dal gioco luministico delle visioni notturne - in uno stile pittorico noto come tenebr…