Share to: share facebook share twitter share wa share telegram print page

United States Navy Strike Fighter Tactics Instructor program

"TOPGUN" redirects here. For other uses, see Top Gun (disambiguation).
"SFTI" redirects here. For protein, see Sunflower trypsin inhibitor.

Emblem of and worn by members of NFWS

The United States Navy Strike Fighter Tactics Instructor program (SFTI program), more popularly known as Top Gun (stylized as TOPGUN), is a United States Navy training program that teaches air combat maneuvering tactics and techniques to selected naval aviators and naval flight officers, who return to their operating units as surrogate instructors.

The program began as the United States Navy Fighter Weapons School, established on 3 March 1969,[1] at the former Naval Air Station Miramar in San Diego, California.[2][3] In 1996, the school was merged into the Naval Strike and Air Warfare Center at Naval Air Station Fallon, Nevada.[4]

"TOP GUN" text at the line shack of NAS Miramar, 1984

History

Origins

U.S. Navy Fleet Air Gunnery Unit Pacific aircraft from NAAS El Centro in the late 1950s[5]

An earlier U.S. Navy air-to-air combat training program, the U.S. Navy Fleet Air Gunnery Units, or FAGU, had provided air combat training for Naval Aviators from the early 1950s until 1960. In June 1956, Fleet Air Gunnery Unit Pacific held the Navy Fleet Air Gunnery Meet at NAAS El Centro.[6] In April 1957, Naval Air Weapons Meet 1957 was held at NAAS El Centro.[6] In April 1958, Naval Air Weapons Meet was held at NAAS El Centro. From 30 November to 4 December 1959, the last Naval Air Weapons Meet was held at MCAAS Yuma.[6][7] Signage called it "Top Gun".[8][9][10][5][11] Fleet Air Gunnery Unit Pacific and Marine Training Groups were closed, as an economy,[12] and a doctrinal shift, brought on by advances in missile, radar, and fire control technology, contributing to the belief that the era of the classic dogfight was over, leading to their disestablishment and a serious decline in U.S air-to-air combat proficiency that became apparent during the Vietnam War.[13][14] The pilots who were part of the initial cadre of instructors at Top Gun had experience as students from FAGU.[14]

In 1968, Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) Admiral Thomas Hinman Moorer ordered Captain Frank Ault to research the failings of the U.S. air-to-air missiles used against the Vietnam People's Air Force during the then-ongoing Vietnam War.[15][16] Operation Rolling Thunder, which lasted from 2 March 1965 to 1 November 1968, ultimately saw almost 1,000 U.S. aircraft losses in about one million sorties.[17]

Royal Navy and South African Brigadier General Dick Lord along with others were sent to assist the US Military. He wrote the USN Air Combat Manoeuvring Manual (ACM) and his training methods were instrumental in the creation of Top Gun.[18][19]

Fighter Weapons School

An F-16 Fighting Falcon and an F-14 Tomcat engaged in a mock dogfight as part of Top Gun training in 1989

The United States Navy Fighter Weapons School was established on 3 March 1969, at Naval Air Station Miramar, California. Placed under the control of the VF-121 "Pacemakers," an F-4 Phantom–equipped Replacement Air Group (RAG) unit, the new school received relatively scant funding and resources. Its staff consisted of eight F-4 Phantom II instructors from VF-121 and one intelligence officer hand-picked by the school's first officer-in-charge, Lieutenant Commander Dan Pedersen, USN.[20] Together, F-4 aviators Darrell Gary, Mel Holmes, Jim Laing, John Nash, Jim Ruliffson, Jerry Sawatzky, J. C. Smith, Steve Smith, as well as Wayne Hildebrand, a naval intelligence officer, built the Naval Fighter Weapons School syllabus from scratch. To support their operations, they borrowed aircraft from its parent unit and other Miramar-based units, such as composite squadron VC-7 and Fighter Squadron VF-126. The school's first headquarters at Miramar was in a stolen modular trailer.[21][22]

Mechanics at the flight line of NAS Miramar, 1984

According to the 1973 command history of the Navy Fighter Weapons School, the unit's purpose was to "train fighter air crews at the graduate level in all aspects of fighter weapons systems including tactics, techniques, procedures and doctrine. It serves to build a nucleus of eminently knowledgeable fighter crews to construct, guide, and enhance weapons training cycles and subsequent aircrew performance. This select group acts as the F-4 community’s most operationally orientated weapons specialists. Top Gun's efforts are dedicated to the Navy’s professional fighter crews, past, present and future."[23]

Highly qualified instructors were an essential element of Top Gun's success. Mediocre instructors are unable to hold the attention of talented students. Top Gun instructors were knowledgeable fighter tacticians assigned to one or more specific fields of expertise, such as a particular weapon, threat, or tactic. Every instructor was required to become an expert in effective training techniques. All lectures were given without notes after being screened by a notorious "murder board" of evaluators who would point out ambiguities or flawed concepts in the draft presentation. The curriculum was in a constant state of flux based upon class critiques and integration of developing tactics to use new systems to combat emerging threats. Instructors often spent their first year on the staff learning to be an effective part of the training environment.[24]

Top Gun F-5E and F-5F Tiger II fighters alongside A-4M Skyhawk attackers, all painted in aggressor markings, at NAS Fallon in 1993

Top Gun initially operated the Douglas A-4 Skyhawk and borrowed USAF Northrop T-38 Talons to simulate the flying characteristics of the MiG-17 and MiG-21, respectively. The school also used Marine-crewed Grumman A-6 Intruders and USAF Convair F-106 Delta Dart aircraft when available. Later adversary aircraft included the IAI Kfir and General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon; and the T-38 was replaced by the Northrop F-5E and F-5F Tiger II.[24]

In addition to maneuvering skill, knowledge of weapons systems was recognized as important. Weapons system knowledge was determined as a common thread among the 4 percent of World War II pilots who accounted for 40 percent of the enemy aircraft destroyed. The complexity of modern weapons systems requires careful study to achieve design potential.[24]

The British writer Rowland White claimed that the early school was influenced by a group of a dozen flying instructors from the British Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm, who were assigned to Miramar as exchange pilots and served as instructors in VF-121.[25][26] A British newspaper, The Daily Telegraph, declared in a 2009 headline, "American Top Gun Fighter Pilot Academy Set Up by British."[27] However, the British naval pilots mentioned in the article confirmed that the claim was false and that they had no role in creating the curriculum and no access to the classified programs that the Top Gun instructors participated in to refine it.[28]

During the halt in the bombing campaign against North Vietnam (in force from 1968 until the early 1970s), Top Gun established itself as a center of excellence in fighter doctrine, tactics, and training. By the time aerial activity over the North resumed, most Navy squadrons had a Top Gun graduate. According to the Navy, the results were dramatic: the Navy kill-to-loss ratio against the North Vietnamese Air Force (NVAF) MiGs soared from 2.42:1 to 12.5:1.[24] In contrast, the Air Force, which had not implemented a similar training program, saw its kill ratio worsen for a time after the resumption of bombing, according to Benjamin Lambeth's The Transformation of American Airpower. On 28 March 1970, Lieutenant Jerry Beaulier, a graduate of Top Gun's first class, scored the first kill of a North Vietnamese MiG since September 1968.[29]

Transfer to NSAWC

In 1996, the transfer of NAS Miramar to the U.S. Marine Corps was coupled with the incorporation of Top Gun into the Naval Strike and Air Warfare Center (NSAWC) at NAS Fallon, Nevada.[4][30] In 2016, NSAWC was rebranded as the Naval Aviation Warfighting Development Center (NAWDC), where Top Gun remains a department alongside graduate-level weapons schools for other naval aviation platforms.

In 2011, the Top Gun program was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum.[31]

In popular culture

A U.S. naval aviator acting as a stand-in during Top Gun filming at NAS Miramar, 5 July 1985

The school was made famous by the 1986 film Top Gun and its 2022 sequel Top Gun: Maverick, starring Tom Cruise.[32] Quoting Top Gun while at the school incurs an immediate $5 fine, as it is seen as conflicting with the institute's atmosphere of professionalism.[33]

See also

References

Cited works

  • Michel, Marshall L. III (2007) [1997]. Clashes; Air Combat Over North Vietnam 1965–1972. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-59114-519-6.
  • Pedersen, Dan (2019). Topgun: An American Story. New York: Hachette Books. ISBN 978-0316416269.

Citations

  1. ^ "March 3 in Naval History". Naval History and Heritage Command. U.S. Navy. Retrieved 11 August 2022.
  2. ^ Michel 2007, p. 186
  3. ^ Senior Chief Deputy Stuart H. Swett (5 July 1994). "Resolution Number R-284202" (PDF). San Diego City Council. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 August 2018. Retrieved 11 August 2018. [...] on March 1, 1943, the area near Miramar Naval Air Station was commissioned the Marine Corps Air Base, Kearney Mesa, San Diego.
  4. ^ a b Perry, Tony (1 June 1996). "San Diego bids farewell to Top Guns". Eugene Register-Guard. {Los Angeles Times}. p. 3A.
  5. ^ a b "Fleet Air Gunnery Unit Pacific". Naval Aviation News. Chief of Naval Operations: 18. January 1958. Retrieved 11 August 2022. Because Fleet Air Gunnery Unit Pacific is being moved before July 1 to MCAAS YUMA, the annual Naval Air Weapons meet will be held this year in October at ...
  6. ^ a b c Romano, Angelo (2004). Naval air weapons meet 1956-1959. Model Publishing. ISBN 978-88-89392-00-3.
  7. ^ "naval-aviation-news". Naval History and Heritage Command. November 1959. Retrieved 11 August 2022.
  8. ^ Naval Aviation News 1959 Nov
  9. ^ Red Devils Victors at Air Weapons Meet
  10. ^ FLEET AIR GUNNERY UNIT, PACIFIC, IS HOST TO ANNUAL NAVAL AIR WEAPONS MEET March 1959 - Naval History and Heritage Command "FLEET AIR GUNNERY UNIT, PACIFIC, IS HOST TO ANNUAL NAVAL AIR WEAPONS MEET. 18. FLEE. LEET AIR Gunnery Unit, Pacific, ... to MCAAS YUMA, the annual Naval."
  11. ^ Walton, Bill (29 July 2017). "Watch: This Top Gun Took Place Long Before Viper and Iceman". Avgeekery.com. Retrieved 11 August 2022.
  12. ^ Jones, Charles F. (December 1962). "Hit or Miss". The Marine Corps Gazette. Marine Corps Association: 33. Retrieved 11 August 2022. Later, after a tour or so in squadrons, and if the pilots were well qualified, they could receive orders to attend FAGUPAC (Fleet Air Gunnery Unit, Pacific). This Navy training unit, then located at NAS, El Centro, Calif. (later at MCAF, Yuma, Ariz.), had the sole mission of training experienced pilots to become weapons delivery experts...By now you will have noticed that MTG and FAGU have been referred to in the past tense. Unfortunately, they are no longer around...The reason the MTGs (Marine Training Groups) are not around today is economy. After the Korean war the large influx of pilots into the Marine Corps slowed. (Major, United States Marine Corps)
  13. ^ Fleet Air Gunnery Unit (FAGU) | A-4 Skyhawk Association. A4skyhawk.org. Retrieved on 24 May 2014.
  14. ^ a b Robert K. Wilcox. Scream of Eagles. ISBN 0-7434-9724-4
  15. ^ Michel 2007, pp. 185–186
  16. ^ Linder, Bruce (2001). San Diego's Navy. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. p. 156. ISBN 1-55750-531-4.
  17. ^ Michel 2007, p. 149
  18. ^ "Brigadier General Dick Lord". www.telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 28 June 2023.
  19. ^ "American "Top Gun" has a Distinct South African Influence". flightlineweekly. 17 December 2019. Retrieved 28 June 2023.
  20. ^ Michel 2007, p. 187
  21. ^ Pedersen 2019, p. 110
  22. ^ "DN-SN-84-09583 Top Gun Line Shack". Naval History and Heritage Command. navy.mil. Retrieved 11 August 2022.
  23. ^ Navy Fighter Weapons School, 1973 Command History, Naval Air Station Miramar, March 1, 1974
  24. ^ a b c d Winnefeld, James A. (1986). "Topgun Getting it Right". Proceedings. 112 (10). United States Naval Institute: 141–146.
  25. ^ "Top Gun Heroes Based on Brit Flying Aces". Sky News. 25 March 2009. Retrieved on 25 March 2009.
  26. ^ "Top Gun's British inspiration". BBC Today. 24 March 2009. Retrieved on 25 March 2009.
  27. ^ "American Top Gun fighter pilot academy set up by British". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022.
  28. ^ Pedersen 2019, p. 234
  29. ^ Grossnick, Roy A.; Evans, Mark (2016). United States Naval Aviation, 1910-2010 (PDF). Naval History and Heritage Command. p. 380. ISBN 9780945274759.Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  30. ^ "Naval Aviation News" (PDF). history.navy.mil. 1995. Retrieved 10 August 2022.
  31. ^ Sprekelmeyer, Linda, editor. These We Honor: The International Aerospace Hall of Fame. Donning Co. Publishers, 2006. ISBN 978-1-57864-397-4.
  32. ^ Waxman, Olivia B. "The Real Military Program That Inspired Top Gun Just Turned 50. Here's How Being a Navy Pilot Has Changed Since Then". Time. Archived from the original on 16 May 2022.
  33. ^ Pickrell, Ryan (16 September 2020). "Former US Navy fighter pilot explains why TOPGUN fines aviators $5 each time they quote the iconic 1986 film 'Top Gun' starring Tom Cruise". Business Insider. Retrieved 12 June 2022.

Further reading

External links
Read more information:

List of onshore wind farms in the United Kingdom

List of wind farms in the United Kingdom redirects here. For offshore wind farms, see list of offshore wind farms in the United Kingdom. This article needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (July 2022) Map all coordinates using OpenStreetMap Download coordinates as: KML GPX (all coordinates) GPX (primary coordinates) GPX (secondary coordinates) This is a list of some onshore wind farms (more than 1 turbine) in the UK. This inf…

Stasiun Sawa (Nagano)

Stasiun Sawa沢駅Stasiun Sawa pada September 2009Lokasi500 Nakaminawa, Minowa-machi, Kamiina-gun, Nagano 399-4601JepangKoordinat35°56′10″N 137°59′07″E / 35.9362°N 137.9854°E / 35.9362; 137.9854Koordinat: 35°56′10″N 137°59′07″E / 35.9362°N 137.9854°E / 35.9362; 137.9854Ketinggian702 meterOperator JR CentralJalur Jalur IidaLetak189.7 km dari ToyohashiJumlah peron1 peron sampingInformasi lainStatusTanpa stafSejarahDibuka16 Mar…

Stasiun Ōmagoshi

Stasiun Ōmagoshi大間越駅Stasiun Ōmagoshi pada September 2019LokasiŌmagoshi Miyazakihama 12, Fukaura-machi, Nishitsugaru-gun, Aomori-ken 038-2208JepangKoordinat40°29′32.7″N 139°57′0.2″E / 40.492417°N 139.950056°E / 40.492417; 139.950056Koordinat: 40°29′32.7″N 139°57′0.2″E / 40.492417°N 139.950056°E / 40.492417; 139.950056Operator JR EastJalur■ Jalur GonōLetak39.9 km dari Higashi-NoshiroJumlah peron1 peron sampingInf…

Mohamed Salleh Ismael

Tun Mohamed Salleh Ismael Kepala Kepolisian Kerajaan Malaysia PendahuluTan Sri Sir Claude FennerPenggantiTan Sri Abdul Rahman Hashim Informasi pribadiLahir7 Juli 1917Bukit Mertajam, Pulau PinangMeninggal31 Januari, 1973Kuala Lumpur, MalaysiaSunting kotak info • L • B Tun Mohamed Salleh Ismael (7 Juli 1917-31 Januari 1973) dilahirkan pada 7 Juli 1917 di Bukit Mertajam, Pulau Pinang. Salleh dilantik sebagai Kepala Kepolisian Kerajaan Malaysia yang kedua pada 29 Maret 1966. Merupakan …

Toupée

Hairpiece or partial wig of natural or synthetic hair This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (January 2021) (Learn how and when to remove thi…

Ayam Gagape

Ayam gagape adalah makanan khas yang berasal dari daerah Bantaeng, Sulawesi Selatan. Sajian makanan ini menyerupai opor ayam karena menggunakan daging ayam sebagai komponen utama namun ayam gagape disajikan dengan bumbu yang lebih kental dan pekat.[1] Asal usul Makanan ayam gagape berasal dari zaman kerajaan Bantaeng. Pada zaman kerajaan makanan gagape termasuk makanan yang paling mahal karena hanya bisa di nikmati dan di sajikan kepada para bangsawan saja.[2] Makanan ini sekaran…

Sonic X

Disambiguazione – Se stai cercando il fumetto tratto dalla serie, vedi Sonic X (fumetto). Sonic XソニックX(Sonikku Ekkusu)Logo della serie Genereazione[1], commedia[2], fantascienza[2], fantastico[2], avventura[3], drammatico[2] Serie TV animeAutoreHajime Kamegaki RegiaHajime Kamegaki SoggettoMatato Mastumoto, Takeshi Sasamura Char. designSatoshi Hirayama Dir. artisticaYukiko Iijima MusicheYoshihiro Ike S…

Advocaat

Halaman ini berisi artikel tentang likeur. Untuk pengacara, lihat advokat. Untuk pelatih sepak bola Belanda, lihat Dick Advocaat. AdvocaatKarakteristikJenisLikeur AsalBelanda Komposisikuning telur brendi gula Diperkenalkan17 abad Warnakuning [sunting di Wikidata]lbs Advocaat atau Advocaatenborrel adalah sejenis minuman beralkohol yang terbuat dari telur, gula dan brendi.[1] Minuman ini memiliki tekstur yang lembut dan memiliki rasa seperti custard dan serupa dengan eggnog. Kadar alko…

Alfred Seale Haslam

Sir Alfred Seale HaslamSir Alfred Seale Haslam pada 1891Lahir27 Oktober 1844[1]Derby, Derbyshire, Inggris[1][2]Meninggal13 Januari 1927(1927-01-13) (umur 82)St Pancras, London, England[1]MakamMorley, U.K.PekerjaanPolitikusOrang tuaWilliam Haslam Sir Alfred Seale Haslam (27 Oktober 1844 – 13 Januari 1927) adalah seorang insinyur Inggris yang menjadi Walikota Derby dari tahun 1890 hingga 1891,[3] tiga kali jadi Walikota Newcastle-under-Lyme,[4]…

Hu Yaobang

Hu Yaobang 胡耀邦 Sekretaris Jenderal Partai Komunis TiongkokMasa jabatan1980 – 1987 PendahuluKosong, terakhir dipegang oleh Deng XiaopingPenggantiZhao ZiyangKetua Partai Komunis TiongkokMasa jabatan1981 – 1982 PendahuluHua GuofengPenggantiPetahana Informasi pribadiLahir(1915-11-20)20 November 1915 Hunan, TiongkokMeninggal15 April 1989(1989-04-15) (umur 73) Beijing, TiongkokKebangsaanRepublik Rakyat TiongkokPartai politikPartai Komunis TiongkokSunting kotak info…

Gereja Katolik di Tajikistan

Bagian dari seriGereja Katolik menurut negara Afrika Afrika Selatan Afrika Tengah Aljazair Angola Benin Botswana Burkina Faso Burundi Chad Eritrea Eswatini Etiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Guinea Khatulistiwa Jibuti Kamerun Kenya Komoro Lesotho Liberia Libya Madagaskar Malawi Mali Maroko Mauritania Mauritius Mesir Mozambik Namibia Niger Nigeria Pantai Gading Republik Demokratik Kongo Republik Kongo Rwanda Sao Tome dan Principe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia Somaliland Sud…

Gimnasium Universitas Pertanian China

Gimnasium Universitas Pertanian ChinaGimnasium saat Olimpiade Musim Panas 2008.LokasiUniversitas Pertanian ChinaPemilikUniversitas Pertanian ChinaKapasitas6,000KonstruksiDibuka2007ArsitekInstitut Desain Arsitektur Universitas Teknologi Cina SelatanPemakaiUniversitas Pertanian China Gimnasium Universitas Pertanian China (Hanzi sederhana: 中国农业大学体育馆; Hanzi tradisional: 中國農業大學體育館; Pinyin: Zhōngguó Nóngyè Dàxué Tǐyùguǎn) adalah arena dalam ruan…

Jendela optik

Plot kasar dari transmitansi (atau opasitas) atmosfer Bumi terhadap berbagai panjang gelombang radiasi elektromagnetik, termasuk cahaya tampak. Dalam astronomi, jendela optik adalah salah satu bagian dari spektrum elektromagnetik yang diteruskan oleh atmosfer hingga mencapai permukaan Bumi. Kebanyakan bagian energi elektromagnetik tidak dapat menembus atmosfer, sehingga fenomena ini menyerupai sebuah 'jendela' yang memberi kita kesempatan untuk melihat sedikit hal-hal yang ada di luar atmosfer. …

Mary Wolverston

English pirate This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Mary Wolverston – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Mary Wolverston, Lady Killigrew (formerly Knyvett; born before 1525 – died after 1587), was a gentlewoman from Su…

Angin baratan

Angin baratan (panah biru) dan angin pasat (panah kuning dan coklat) Angin baratan atau Angin antipasat[1] merupakan angin umum yang bergerak dari arah barat ke arah timur di daerah lintang sedang, yakni antara lintang 30° dan 60° selatan dan lintang 30° dan 60° utara. Angin ini secara tetap bertiup dari wilayah sabuk tekanan tinggi subtropis menuju daerah kutub.[2][3] Referensi ^ Kamus Klimatologi Departemen Pendidikan (PDF). Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan. Di…

Abdalelah Haroun

Abdalelah HarounHaroun pada Kejuaraan Dunia 2017Informasi pribadiNama asliعبد الإله هارونKewarganegaraanSudanQatarLahir1 Januari 1997Al-Soki, Sennar, SudanMeninggal26 Juni 2021(2021-06-26) (umur 24)Doha, QatarTinggi185 m (606 ft 11 in)Berat80 kg (176 pon) OlahragaNegara QatarOlahragaAtletikLomba400 meterDilatih olehLuiz de Oliveira[1]Prestasi dan gelarPeringkat pribadi terbaik400 m: 44.07 (2018)500 m(dalam ruangan): 59.83 WB (Stoc…

Catha

Catha Catha edulis Klasifikasi ilmiah Kerajaan: Plantae Divisi: Magnoliophyta Kelas: Magnoliopsida Subkelas: Rosidae Ordo: Celastrales Famili: Celastraceae Subfamili: Celastroideae Genus: CathaDon, 1832 Spesies[3] Catha abbottii (A.E.van Wyk & M.Prins)[1] Catha edulis (Vahl) Forssk. ex Endl. Catha transvaalensis (Codd)[2] Catha adalah genus dari tiga spesies tumbuhan dalam famili Celastraceae.[3] Genus ini dideskripsika oleh ahli botani asal Skotlandia, George…

Katedral La Rochelle

Katedral La RochelleKatedral Santo LouisPrancis: Cathédrale Saint-Louis de La Rochellecode: fr is deprecated Katedral La RochelleLokasiLa RochelleNegara PrancisDenominasiGereja Katolik RomaArsitekturStatusKatedralStatus fungsionalAktifAdministrasiKeuskupanKeuskupan La Rochelle dan Saintes Katedral La Rochelle (Prancis: Cathédrale Saint-Louis de la Rochellecode: fr is deprecated ) adalah sebuah gereja katedral Katolik yang berlokasi di kota La Rochelle , Prancis. Katedral telah menjadi mon…

Kemiskinan di Indonesia

Potret seorang pengemis di jalanan. Kemiskinan di Indonesia merupakan masalah yang besar meskipun dalam beberapa tahun terakhir angka resmi menunjukkan tren yang menurun sedikit demi sedikit. Dikarenakan daerah pedesaan yang padat di Jawa, Bali, Lombok, dan sebagian Sumatra, kemiskinan dapat diklasifikasikan ke dalam kemiskinan pedesaan dan perkotaan. Kemiskinan perkotaan lazim tidak hanya di Jabodetabek, tetapi juga di Medan dan Surabaya. Sebagai kepulauan yang luas, karakteristik dan implikasi…

Ford F-Series (generasi kedelapan)

Artikel utama: Ford F-Series Generasi delapanFord F150 XLT Lariat 4x2 Kabin Regular 1989InformasiProdusenFordJuga disebutFord F-1000 (Brasil dan Argentina)Ford F-4000 (Brasil dan Argentina)Masa produksi1986–1991 (AS, Meksiko, Kanada, dan Venezuela)[1] 1987–1992 (Australia)[2] 1988–1992 (Argentina)1992–1995 (Brasil) 1993–1995 (Argentina, model trim Brasil)PerakitanCuautitlán, MeksikoKansas City, Missouri, ASNorfolk, Virginia, ASSt. Paul, Minnesota, AS General Pache…

Kembali kehalaman sebelumnya