In African-American history, the post–civil rights era is defined as the time period in the United States since Congressional passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the Fair Housing Act of 1968, major federal legislation that ended legal segregation, gained federal oversight and enforcement of voter registration and electoral practices in states or areas with a history of discriminatory practices, and ended discrimination in the renting and buying of housing.
Politically, African Americans have made substantial strides in the post–civil rights era. Civil rights leader Jesse Jackson ran for the Democratic Party's presidential nomination in 1984 and 1988, attracting more African Americans into politics and unprecedented support and leverage for people of colour in politics. In 2008, Barack Obama was elected as the first President of the United States of African descent.
In the same period, African Americans have suffered disproportionate unemployment rates following industrial and corporate restructuring, with a rate of poverty in the 21st century that is equal to that in the 1960s. African Americans have the highest rates of incarceration of any minority group, especially in the southern states of the former Confederacy.
On February 21, 1965, Malcolm X, an African-American rights activist with national and international prominence, was shot and killed in New York City.[1]
1966 was the last year of publication of The Negro Motorist Green Book, informally known as "The Green Book". It provided advice to African-American travelers, during years of legal segregation and overt discrimination, about places where they could stay, get gas, and eat while traveling cross-country.[2] For example, in 1956 only three New Hampshire motels served African Americans, and most motels and hotels in the South were segregated.[3] After the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Green Book largely became obsolete.[2]
In 1966–1967, the African-American cultural holiday Kwanzaa was first celebrated.[4] Kwanzaa was founded by Maulana Karenga as a Pan-Africanist cultural and racial-identity event, as an alternative to cultural events of the dominant society such as Christmas and Hanukkah.[5]
In the 1973 and 1974 MLB seasons, African-American baseball player Hank Aaron sought to pass Babe Ruth's career home-run record. Between 1973 and 1974, Aaron broke the world record for most mail received in one year with over 950,000 letters. Over one-third of those letters were hate mail letters for beating a white man's record, including death threats.
Alex Haley published his novel Roots: The Saga of an American Family in 1976. It became a bestseller and generated great levels of interest in African-American genealogy and history. Roots was adapted into an eight part 1977 TV series that attracted a huge audience across the country.[23][24]
On November 18, 1978, six hundred and forty eight African-Americans died in the mass murder/suicide of the Peoples Temple religious group in Jonestown, Guyana.[25] The religious group, led by Jim Jones, had relocated from California to establish a community in Guyana, South America.[25]
The cast of The Jeffersons in 1976. The Jeffersons ran from 1975 to 1985, and was the second-longest running TV series with a mainly African-American cast.[28][29]
Followers of Jim Jones in San Francisco in January 1977
1980s
In 1982, Michael Jackson released Thriller, which became the best-selling album of all time.
The Miracle Valley shootout in October 1982 saw two Black churchgoers killed and seven Arizona law enforcement officers injured.[30]
Marion Barry, Mayor of Washington DC, filmed smoking crack on a police surveillance tape, 1990
The crack cocaine epidemic had a devastating effect on Black America.[31] As early as 1981, reports of crack were appearing in Los Angeles, San Diego, Miami, and Houston.[32] In 1984, the distribution and use of crack exploded.[32] In 1984, in some major cities such as New York, Philadelphia, Houston, Los Angeles, and Detroit, one dosage unit of crack could be obtained for as little as $2.50 (equivalent to $7.33 in 2023).[32]
Between 1984 and 1989, the homicide rate for black males aged 14 to 17 more than doubled, and the homicide rate for black males aged 18 to 24 increased nearly as much. During this period, the black community also suffered a 20%–100% increase in fetal death rates, low birth-weight babies, weapons arrests, and the number of children in foster care.[31]
The beginning of the crack epidemic coincided with the rise of hip hop music in the Black community in the mid-1980s, strongly influencing the evolution of hardcore hip hop and gangsta rap, as crack and hip hop became the two leading fundamentals of urban street culture.[33]
The Cosby Show begins as a TV series in 1984. Featuring an upper-middle-class family with comedian Bill Cosby as a physician and head of the family, it is regarded[by whom?] as one of the defining television shows of the decade.
On November 21, 1984, top youth basketballer Ben Wilson was shot and killed in Chicago.[34][35][36] Wilson was regarded as the top high school player in the US, by scouts and coaches attending the 1984 Athletes For Better Education basketball camp.[34][35][36]
11 members of the Black liberation and back-to-nature group MOVE died during a standoff with police in West Philadelphia on May 13, 1985. John Africa, the founder of MOVE was killed, as well as five other adults and five children. 65 homes were destroyed after a police helicopter dropped an incendiary device, causing an out of control fire in surrounding houses.[37]
The film The Color Purple was released to box office success in December 1985.[38] Set in the early 20th Century, The Color Purple tells the story of a young Black girl named Celie Harris who faces issues both public and socially hidden, including domestic violence, incest, pedophilia, poverty, racism, and sexism.[39]The Color Purple has been described as "a plea for respect for Black women."[40]
In January 1987 in rural Forsyth County, Georgia, about 20,000 demonstrators took part in a march after a previous march in the county was disrupted by white supremacists and Klansmen in one of the largest civil rights demonstrations since the 1960s.
Beloved by Toni Morrison was published in 1987. In 2006, a New York Times survey of writers and literary critics ranked it as the best work of American fiction in the last 25 years.[41] After producing additional masterworks, Toni Morrison was later awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature.
In 1988, track and field athlete Florence Griffith Joyner, also known as "Flo Jo", won three gold and one silver medal at the 1988 Summer Olympics.[44] At the time, her medal haul was the second most for a female track and field athlete in history.[44]
In 1993, civil rights activist C. Delores Tucker started publicly campaigning against misogyny in rap music.[47] Tucker believed that the attacks upon Black women in hip-hop lyrics threatened the moral foundation of African American society.[47] In response, Delores Tucker was lyrically disparaged by multiple rappers, including Tupac,[48] and Eminem.[49]
The racially charged murder trial of O.J. Simpson transfixed America between January and October 1995. The trial of the already famous NFL star and actor O. J. Simpson was the most publicized in US history.[50]
On June 3, 2008, Barack Obama received enough delegates by the end of state primaries to be the presumptive Democratic Party of the United States nominee.[55] On August 28, 2008, at the 2008 Democratic National Convention, in a stadium filled with supporters, Obama accepted the Democratic nomination for President of the United States. Obama was elected 44th President of the United States of America on November 4, 2008, opening his victory speech with, "If there is anyone out there who still doubts that America is a place where all things are possible; who still wonders if the dream of our founders is alive in our time; who still questions the power of our democracy, tonight is your answer."[56]
On January 20, 2009, Obama was sworn in as the 44th President of the United States, the first African American to become president. Former Maryland Lt. Governor Michael Steele, an African American, was elected as Chairman of the Republican National Committee on January 30, 2009.[citation needed]
This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(April 2019)
On July 19, 2010, Shirley Sherrod was pressured to resign from the U.S. Department of Agriculture because of controversial publicity; the department apologized to her for her being inaccurately portrayed as racist toward white Americans.
In 2013, protests were held across the United States following the death of an unarmed African-American teenager, Trayvon Martin, who was shot by George Zimmerman in Florida. Zimmerman was charged with murder, but later acquitted. In reaction to Martin's death and Zimmerman's acquittal, Black activists Alicia Garza, Patrisse Cullors, and Opal Tometi popularized the hashtag #BlackLivesMatter.
In 2014, massive protests were held in Ferguson, Missouri, following the shooting death of Michael Brown Jr. by Ferguson police. The death of Eric Garner while being held in a chokehold by a New York City policeman, Daniel Pantaleo, in July 2014, sparked additional outrage and protests across the country. In the wake of these deaths, and others, Black Lives Matter developed into a nationwide non-violent movement.
In 1989, Douglas Wilder became the first African American to be elected governor in U.S. history. In 1992 Carol Moseley-Braun of Illinois became the first black woman to be elected to the U.S. Senate. In 2000 there were 8,936 black officeholders in the United States, showing a net increase of 7,467 since 1970. In 2001 there were 484 black mayors.[64]
At least 95 percent of African-American voters voted for Obama. Obama won big among young and minority voters, bringing a number of new states to the Democratic electoral column.[66][67] Obama became the first Democrat since Jimmy Carter to win a popular vote majority. He also received overwhelming support from whites, a majority of Asians, and Americans of Hispanic origin.[68] Obama lost the overall white vote, but he won a larger proportion of white votes than any previous non-incumbent Democratic presidential candidate since Jimmy Carter.[69]
Marriages between African-Americans and people of other races have significantly increased since all race-based legal restrictions on interracial marriage ended following Loving v. Virginia in 1967.[70] The overall rate of marriages between African-Americans and non-Black spouses more than tripled between 1980 and 2015, from 5% to 18%.[71] 24% of all Black male newlyweds married outside their race in 2015, compared to 12% of Black female newlyweds.[71]
Economic situation
Nearly 25% of all black Americans live below the poverty line in the early 21st century, approximately the same percentage as the percentage of all black Americans who lived below the poverty line in 1968. The child poverty rate has also increased among African Americans and their rate of unemployment is disproportionately high in comparison to the rate of unemployment among members of other ethnic groups.[72]
In public opinion, these sobering facts have sometimes been masked by the spectacular achievements of successful individuals. African Americans are underrepresented in the rapidly expanding and lucrative fields related to computer programming and technology, where innovations have led to some people making huge new fortunes.[citation needed]
Economic progress for blacks' reaching the extremes of wealth has been slow. According to Forbes "richest" lists, Oprah Winfrey was the richest African American of the 20th century and has been the world's only black billionaire in 2004, 2005, and 2006.[73] Not only was Winfrey the world's only black billionaire but she has been the only black on the Forbes 400 list nearly every year since 1995. BET founder Bob Johnson briefly joined her on the list from 2001 to 2003 before his ex-wife acquired part of his fortune; although he returned to the list in 2006, he did not make it in 2007. Blacks currently comprise 0.25% of America's economic elite; they make up 13% of the total U.S. population.[74]
Despite the gains of the civil rights movement, other factors have resulted in African-American communities suffering from extremely high incarceration rates of their young males. Contributing factors have been the drug war waged by successive administrations, imposition of sentencing guidelines at the federal and state levels, cutbacks in government assistance, restructuring of industry since the mid-20th century and extensive loss of working-class jobs leading to high poverty rates, and government neglect, an erosion of African American two parent families, and unfavorable social policies. African Americans have the highest imprisonment rate of any major ethnic group in the United States and the world, and are sentenced to death at a rate higher than any other ethnic group.[citation needed]
^Knight, Michael Muhammad (2007). The Five Percenters: Islam, Hip Hop and the Gods of New York. Oneworld Publications. pp. 120–1. ISBN978-1-85168-513-4.
^Knight, Michael Muhammad (2007). The Five Percenters: Islam, Hip Hop and the Gods of New York. Oneworld Publications. pp. 35–36. ISBN978-1-85168-513-4.
^Delaney, Paul (July 12, 2022). "Slaying of Mrs. Martin Luther King Sr". The Decatur Review. New York Times. p. 6. Retrieved February 27, 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
^"In Memory of 'Mama King'". Ebony. September 1974.
Endocrine glandsThe major endocrine glands: 1 Pineal gland 2 Pituitary gland 3 Thyroid gland 4 Thymus 5 Adrenal gland 6 Pancreas 7 Ovary (female) 8 Testis (male)RincianPengidentifikasiBahasa Latinglandulae endocrinaeMeSHD004702TA98A11.0.00.000TA23852THH2.00.02.0.03072FMA9602Daftar istilah anatomi[sunting di Wikidata] Kelenjar endokrin adalah kelenjar yang berada di dalam otak yang berguna sebagai pengatur hormon-hormon yang dihasilkan dari kelenjar lainnya.[1] Kelenjar endokrin dalam…
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Ruud Brood Informasi pribadiNama lengkap Ruud BroodTanggal lahir 19 Oktober 1962 (umur 61)Tempat lahir Gorinchem, BelandaPosisi bermain GelandangInformasi klubKlub saat ini RKC Waalwijk (Manajer)Karier senior*Tahun Tim Tampil (Gol)1983–1985 Feyenoord Rotterdam ? (?)1985–1987 RKC Waalwijk ? (?)1987–1989 FC Den Bosch ? (?)1989–1990 Willem II Tilburg ? (?)1990–1998 NAC Breda ? (?)Kepelatihan1997–2004 NAC Breda (pelatih junior)2004–2006 Helmond Sport2006–2007 Heracles Almelo2008…
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Administrative entry restrictions Visa requirements for Kuwaiti citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of Kuwait. As of 9 January 2024, Kuwaiti citizens had visa-free or visa on arrival access to 103 countries and territories, ranking the Kuwaiti passport 55th in terms of travel freedom according to the Henley Passport Index.[1] Kuwaiti citizens do not need a visa to enter other member states of the GCC. Visa requirements map …
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American journalist This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) The topic of this article may not meet Wikipedia's notability guideline for biographies. Please help to demonstrate the notability of the topic by citing reliable secondary sources that are independent of the topic and provide significant coverage of it beyond a mere trivial mention. If notability cannot be shown, the articl…
This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources.Find sources: Nordic combined at the 1956 Winter Olympics – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2024) Nordic Combinedat the VII Olympic Winter GamesVenueTrampolino Olimpico (ski jumping)Lo Stadio della neve (cross-country skiing)Dates29–31 January 195…
Annie LennoxOBEAnnie Lennox pentas di Rally for Human Rights saat Konferensi AIDS Internasional 2010 di Wina sebagai bagian dari SING Campaign-nya.Informasi latar belakangNama lahirAnn LennoxLahir25 Desember 1954 (umur 69)AsalAberdeen, SkotlandiaGenre Pop pop rock rock soul blue-eyed soul new wave R&B synth-pop electronica kontemporer dewasa jazz Pekerjaan Penyanyi Penulis lagu aktivis duta kemanusiaan Instrumen Vokal piano Tahun aktif1976–sekarangLabel RCA Arista (1981–2009)Island …
Former railway station in England Seaham HarbourThe site of the station in January 2017General informationLocationSeaham, County DurhamEnglandCoordinates54°50′14″N 1°20′26″W / 54.8371°N 1.3406°W / 54.8371; -1.3406Platforms1Other informationStatusDisusedHistoryOriginal companyLondonderry, Seaham & Sunderland RailwayPre-groupingNorth Eastern RailwayPost-groupingLNERKey dates1855Opened as Seaham1 March 1925Renamed Seaham Harbour11 September 1939…
Form of discrimination You can help expand this article with text translated from the corresponding article in French. (December 2023) Click [show] for important translation instructions. Machine translation, like DeepL or Google Translate, is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Wikipedia. Consider adding a topic to this…
LA KnightKnight pada November 2022Nama lahirShaun RickerLahir1 November 1982 (umur 41)Hagerstown, Maryland, A.S.Karier gulat profesionalNama ringDeuceDick RickDick Rick LeykisEl Hijo de TrumpEli DrakeLA KnightMax DupriShaun RickerSlate RandallTinggi6 ft 1 in (185 cm)[1]Berat240 pon (109 kg)[1]Asal dariLos Angeles, CaliforniaHagerstown, Maryland[1]Dilatih olehCody HawkDebut15 Februari 2003 Shaun Ricker (lahir 1 November 1982) adalah pegulat pr…